DETERMINE THE INDICES OF DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT

Abstract

This paper considers the indices of  development and underdevelopment. The focus of this paper is on the global indices of underdevelopment and development options available. It highlights the various theories of development and the flaws associated with such theories. This paper uses the theory of modernization, dependency and alternative development theories to operationalize how development is understood along the development trajectory. The paper also highlights the causes of underdevelopment.

Keywords: Indices, Development, underdevelopment.

Introduction:

Today, the lighthouse of development shows cracks and is starting to crumble. The idea of development stands like a ruin in the intellectual landscape. Delusion and disappointment, failures and crimes have been the steady companions of development and they tell a common story: it did not work. Moreover, the historical conditions which catapulted the idea into prominence have vanished as development has become outdated. But above all, the hopes and desires which made the idea fly, are now exhausted as development has grown (Frank, 2011).

The growing gap between developed and developing countries has dominated international relations and diplomacy for a long time. This gap has led to constant capital influx from the developed countries to those in the Third World including Africa; with the goal of helping them overcome their problems and reduce the gap.

The debate concerning the underdevelopment and development of African continent and other equally poor parts of the world is not a new phenomenon in the development discourse but can be traced back to antiquity. There exist a number of reasons deduced to the present condition which might be termed as development crisis. This is because some of the continents have remained largely underdeveloped regardless of the presence of huge natural resources (gold, cocoa, bauxite, oil, diamond, timber) and human resources based in some countries (Pieterse, 2010).

In the case of Africa, several decades after the end of colonialism, most parts of Africa is still fighting with problems such as high poverty rate, corruption,  lack of basic infrastructural facilities in all sectors of the economy, unemployment, high mortality rate, political instability and insecurity of lives and property. The development discourse is made up of a web of key concepts.

It is impossible to talk about underdevelopment or development without referring to concepts such as poverty, production, the notion of the state, or equality. These concepts first rose to prominence during modern Western history and only then have they been projected on the rest of the world’ (Szirmai, 2005). For example, Ghana touted as one of the best democratic and politically stable countries in Africa and Nigeria the most heavily populated African country, according to the United Nations human development report (2011), ranked 135 and 156 respectively out of 187 countries (UN, 2011).

Against the background of Africa’s development crisis, emanated the debate on how to solve the crisis of development in Africa. This debate has been a blistering one and is dominated by two main related themes, namely: the argument over the actual meaning of the concept of development and the appropriate pathway to development (Ikenna, 2009). However, despite the discrepancy among scholars, global policy makers and institutions over these issues, numerous attempts have been made to understand and solve the crisis of underdevelopment and development in Africa and the world at large.

The aim of this paper is to determine the indices of underdevelopment and development and also, the researcher deemed it fit to touched the history of development and underdevelopment in general and narrows it down to African continent, look at the diverse definitions of the concept of development and underdevelopment, reflect on some of the theories of development with much emphasis on modernization theory(1950s), dependency theory(1960s), alternative development paradigm(1970s) and the neo liberalist perspective( 1980s) and reflect on the diverse causes of underdevelopment as a crisis before looking at the indices and at possible pathways for the realization of development .

History of Development and Underdevelopment:

With regard to the history of development and underdevelopment, there exists limited literature. However, the origin of development and underdevelopment is associated with the speech of President Truman of United States.

That very day, the day Truman took office as the 33rd president of United States, a new epoch was opened for the world – the eon of development. President Truman in his speech on that day asserted that ‘we must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.

It is worth noting that, President Truman was not the first person to use the word- development. A former member of the Secretariat of the International Labour Organization by name Wilfred Benson was probably the first person to have invented the word- development when he referred to underdeveloped areas in his writing piece on economic basis for peace in 1942. The expression by Wilfred Benson found no echo from the experts in the field of development studies and the public, hence its extinction at the time. However, the word development only acquired relevance and the echo from the experts and the public when President Truman presented it as an emblem of his policy direction as the 33rd President of United States (Rostow, 2008). Since then, development has signified at least one thing: to flee from the undignified state called underdevelopment.

Definitions of Development and Underdevelopment:

The exact meaning of development in the terrain of development studies has been plagued with intense controversy as to what is development, for whom and by whom. These controversies notwithstanding, there are a plethora of definitions propounded by various scholars to capture the meaning of development from their perspective and their ideological orientation. The term, development, has been used in several ways. Traditionally, it was equated with growth of per capita income. Since the 1970s, other indices of development have become widely used by development scholars and development agencies such as the World Bank, IMF, etc.

The meeting of basic needs (or, equivalently, reduction in absolute poverty), the creation of modern employment opportunities, and the achievement of a less unequal distribution of income have all become important criteria in determining the level of development (Todaro & Smith, Case Studies in Economic Development, 2003).

According to Todaro and Smith(2012), ‘development must therefore be conceived of as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and the eradication of poverty’. This presupposes that development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic and social system and it is a process of improving the quality of all human lives with three equally important aspects- which are basic components or core values serve as a

conceptual basis and practical guideline for comprehending the inner meaning of development.  These core values are sustenance, self-esteem and freedom and these represent a universal goal sought after by individual and society (Shirley, 2005).

The above definition is in tandem with Amartya Sen notion on development. He also defines development strictly converse to that of economic point of view. According to him, all individuals are gifted with certain set of capabilities while it is simply a matter of realizing these capabilities that will allow a person to escape from poverty and their state of unfreedom. The un-freedom comprises lack of education, illiteracy, poor health, malnutrition, etc. (Sen, 2006). Sen subjects the fundamental assumption of development viewed from purely economic point of view with emphasis on economic growth and GDP, by arguing that income poverty should not be the single most important factor in determining development because there are equally important dimension to development, hence the concept of development being a multidimensional concept.  Sen expands the critical interpretations of freedom by examining five elemental forms of instrumental freedoms: political freedoms, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency guarantees, and protective security and lays emphasis on the fact that, the five forms of freedom are complementary, interrelated and inextricable (Rostow, 2008).

This presupposes that individual freedom must comprise of the five for an individual to realize his or her potentials. Development has to do with qualitative and quantitative improvement in all aspect of human endeavour comprising the economic, political, cultural, environmental, social, etc.

Theories of Development and Underdevelopment:

In an attempt to explain the development gap existing between the developed and underdeveloped countries, a galore of theories and models have been advocated by various scholars and practitioners in the field in support of the reasons behind the divergence and disparity in the level of development across space and time. It is of essence to note that, these theories and models developed by these scholars to explain the developmental disparity are not without criticisms.

Development theory thus refers to the leading theories and many rival and subsidiary theories that critique, revise, sum and offer broad explanatory frameworks on development (Pieterse 2009). Thus, a development theory has both a development concept and a development strategy associated with it. Development theories are also often inter-disciplinary and problem oriented.

Modernization theory is one of the theories that explains pathway to development and gains fame in the 1950s.

Modernization theory emerged in the 1950s as an explanation of how the industrial societies of North America and Western Europe developed. The theory argues that societies develop in fairly predictable stages though which they become increasingly complex. Development depends primarily on the importation of technology as well as a number of other political and social changes believed to come about as a result. For example, modernization involves increased levels of schooling and the development of mass media, both of which foster democratic political institutions. Transportation and communication become increasingly sophisticated and accessible, populations become more urban and mobile, and the extended family declines in importance as a result.  According to modernization theories, endogenous factors in the countries, such as traditional, illiteracy, the traditional attitude of the population, agrarian structure, the low division of labour, the lack of communication and infrastructure, etc., are answerable for underdevelopment.

Differences in structure and historical origin are considered of little importance; international dependencies are not taken into account.

Rostow’s five stages of economic growth feature predominantly in the1950s. In his classic work titled- The Stages of Economic Growth, Rostow outlines an optimistic scenario by positing five stages of economic development which all societies in one point in time will transcend to realizing development. These stages are the traditional stage, the pre-condition for take-off, the take-off stage, and drive to maturity and lastly the stage of mass consumption (Rostow, 2009). Despite the contribution of the modernization school of thought to development discourse, it is criticized of being eurocentric, development not a linear process, ignored the history and culture of different group of people and society, etc.

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