Abstract
This paper considers the indices of development and underdevelopment. The focus of
this paper is on the global indices of underdevelopment and development options
available. It highlights the various theories of development and the flaws
associated with such theories. This paper uses the theory of modernization,
dependency and alternative development theories to operationalize how development
is understood along the development trajectory. The paper also highlights the
causes of underdevelopment.
Keywords: Indices, Development,
underdevelopment.
Introduction:
Today,
the lighthouse of development shows cracks and is starting to crumble. The idea
of development stands like a ruin in the intellectual landscape. Delusion and
disappointment, failures and crimes have been the steady companions of
development and they tell a common story: it did not work. Moreover, the
historical conditions which catapulted the idea into prominence have vanished
as development has become outdated. But above all, the hopes and desires which
made the idea fly, are now exhausted as development has grown (Frank, 2011).
The
growing gap between developed and developing countries has dominated
international relations and diplomacy for a long time. This gap has led to
constant capital influx from the developed countries to those in the Third
World including Africa; with the goal of helping them overcome their problems
and reduce the gap.
The
debate concerning the underdevelopment and development of African continent and
other equally poor parts of the world is not a new phenomenon in the
development discourse but can be traced back to antiquity. There exist a number
of reasons deduced to the present condition which might be termed as
development crisis. This is because some of the continents have remained
largely underdeveloped regardless of the presence of huge natural resources
(gold, cocoa, bauxite, oil, diamond, timber) and human resources based in some
countries (Pieterse, 2010).
In
the case of Africa, several decades after the end of colonialism, most parts of
Africa is still fighting with problems such as high poverty rate, corruption, lack of basic infrastructural facilities in
all sectors of the economy, unemployment, high mortality rate, political instability
and insecurity of lives and property. The development discourse is made up of a
web of key concepts.
It
is impossible to talk about underdevelopment or development without referring
to concepts such as poverty, production, the notion of the state, or equality.
These concepts first rose to prominence during modern Western history and only
then have they been projected on the rest of the world’ (Szirmai, 2005). For
example, Ghana touted as one of the best democratic and politically stable
countries in Africa and Nigeria the most heavily populated African country, according
to the United Nations human development report (2011), ranked 135 and 156
respectively out of 187 countries (UN, 2011).
Against
the background of Africa’s development crisis, emanated the debate on how to solve
the crisis of development in Africa. This debate has been a blistering one and
is dominated by two main related themes, namely: the argument over the actual
meaning of the concept of development and the appropriate pathway to development
(Ikenna, 2009). However, despite the discrepancy among scholars, global policy
makers and institutions over these issues, numerous attempts have been made to
understand and solve the crisis of underdevelopment and development in Africa
and the world at large.
The
aim of this paper is to determine the indices of underdevelopment and
development and also, the researcher deemed it fit to touched the history of
development and underdevelopment in general and narrows it down to African
continent, look at the diverse definitions of the concept of development and underdevelopment,
reflect on some of the theories of development with much emphasis on
modernization theory(1950s), dependency theory(1960s), alternative development
paradigm(1970s) and the neo liberalist perspective( 1980s) and reflect on the
diverse causes of underdevelopment as a crisis before looking at the indices
and at possible pathways for the realization of development .
History
of Development and Underdevelopment:
With
regard to the history of development and underdevelopment, there exists limited
literature. However, the origin of development and underdevelopment is
associated with the speech of President Truman of United States.
That
very day, the day Truman took office as the 33rd president of United States, a
new epoch was opened for the world – the eon of development. President Truman
in his speech on that day asserted that ‘we must embark on a bold new program
for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress
available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas.
It
is worth noting that, President Truman was not the first person to use the
word- development. A former member of the Secretariat of the International
Labour Organization by name Wilfred Benson was probably the first person to
have invented the word- development when he referred to underdeveloped areas in
his writing piece on economic basis for peace in 1942. The expression by
Wilfred Benson found no echo from the experts in the field of development
studies and the public, hence its extinction at the time. However, the word development
only acquired relevance and the echo from the experts and the public when
President Truman presented it as an emblem of his policy direction as the 33rd
President of United States (Rostow, 2008). Since then, development has
signified at least one thing: to flee from the undignified state called
underdevelopment.
Definitions
of Development and Underdevelopment:
The
exact meaning of development in the terrain of development studies has been
plagued with intense controversy as to what is development, for whom and by
whom. These controversies notwithstanding, there are a plethora of definitions
propounded by various scholars to capture the meaning of development from their
perspective and their ideological orientation. The term, development, has been
used in several ways. Traditionally, it was equated with growth of per capita
income. Since the 1970s, other indices of development have become widely used
by development scholars and development agencies such as the World Bank, IMF,
etc.
The
meeting of basic needs (or, equivalently, reduction in absolute poverty), the
creation of modern employment opportunities, and the achievement of a less
unequal distribution of income have all become important criteria in determining
the level of development (Todaro & Smith, Case Studies in Economic
Development, 2003).
According
to Todaro and Smith(2012), ‘development must therefore be conceived of as a
multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular
attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic
growth, the reduction of inequality and the eradication of poverty’. This
presupposes that development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a
multi-dimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire
economic and social system and it is a process of improving the quality of all
human lives with three equally important aspects- which are basic components or
core values serve as a
conceptual
basis and practical guideline for comprehending the inner meaning of
development. These core values are
sustenance, self-esteem and freedom and these represent a universal goal sought
after by individual and society (Shirley, 2005).
The
above definition is in tandem with Amartya Sen notion on development. He also
defines development strictly converse to that of economic point of view.
According to him, all individuals are gifted with certain set of capabilities
while it is simply a matter of realizing these capabilities that will allow a
person to escape from poverty and their state of unfreedom. The un-freedom
comprises lack of education, illiteracy, poor health, malnutrition, etc. (Sen, 2006).
Sen subjects the fundamental assumption of development viewed from purely
economic point of view with emphasis on economic growth and GDP, by arguing
that income poverty should not be the single most important factor in
determining development because there are equally important dimension to
development, hence the concept of development being a multidimensional concept.
Sen expands the critical interpretations
of freedom by examining five elemental forms of instrumental freedoms: political
freedoms, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency guarantees,
and protective security and lays emphasis on the fact that, the five forms of
freedom are complementary, interrelated and inextricable (Rostow, 2008).
This
presupposes that individual freedom must comprise of the five for an individual
to realize his or her potentials. Development has to do with qualitative and
quantitative improvement in all aspect of human endeavour comprising the
economic, political, cultural, environmental, social, etc.
Theories
of Development and Underdevelopment:
In
an attempt to explain the development gap existing between the developed and
underdeveloped countries, a galore of theories and models have been advocated
by various scholars and practitioners in the field in support of the reasons
behind the divergence and disparity in the level of development across space
and time. It is of essence to note that, these theories and models developed by
these scholars to explain the developmental disparity are not without criticisms.
Development
theory thus refers to the leading theories and many rival and subsidiary
theories that critique, revise, sum and offer broad explanatory frameworks on
development (Pieterse 2009). Thus, a development theory has both a development
concept and a development strategy associated with it. Development theories are
also often inter-disciplinary and problem oriented.
Modernization
theory is one of the theories that explains pathway to development and gains
fame in the 1950s.
Modernization
theory emerged in the 1950s as an explanation of how the industrial societies
of North America and Western Europe developed. The theory argues that societies
develop in fairly predictable stages though which they become increasingly
complex. Development depends primarily on the importation of technology as well
as a number of other political and social changes believed to come about as a
result. For example, modernization involves increased levels of schooling and
the development of mass media, both of which foster democratic political
institutions. Transportation and communication become increasingly
sophisticated and accessible, populations become more urban and mobile, and the
extended family declines in importance as a result. According to modernization theories,
endogenous factors in the countries, such as traditional, illiteracy, the
traditional attitude of the population, agrarian structure, the low division of
labour, the lack of communication and infrastructure, etc., are answerable for
underdevelopment.
Differences
in structure and historical origin are considered of little importance;
international dependencies are not taken into account.
Rostow’s
five stages of economic growth feature predominantly in the1950s. In his
classic work titled- The Stages of Economic Growth, Rostow outlines an
optimistic scenario by positing five stages of economic development which all
societies in one point in time will transcend to realizing development. These
stages are the traditional stage, the pre-condition for take-off, the take-off
stage, and drive to maturity and lastly the stage of mass consumption (Rostow, 2009).
Despite the contribution of the modernization school of thought to development
discourse, it is criticized of being eurocentric, development not a linear
process, ignored the history and culture of different group of people and
society, etc.
Visit www.researchshelf.com
for complete project materials, project topics, past examination questions and
answers, assignments, research proposals,
meet fellow students online, meet with lecturers and ask for help, read
and post news (Campus News). Registration is Free Of Charge (FOC).
Note also that our
mobile app will soon be launched where you can download it and view all the
above features on your mobile devices.
No comments:
Post a Comment