CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
INTRODUCTION
The
role of motivation in every society or organization is to promote the
performance of individual or workers in a work setting. Motivation is one of
the elements of directing - to cause subordinates to act on the orders.
Directive is achieved through motivation. That is why motivation is complex and
had attracted a lot of studies and more so, it is a vital approach to
increasing productivity and performance.
2.1
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A
review of related literature involves reconsideration of the extent to which
past studies have been carried out in the field of study which the researcher
is conducting her present research work. This has helped the researcher to
acquaint herself thoroughly with the existing studies already carried out in
the field of her research. Sankey (2001) observed that the review in
every research is supposed to serve as a guide to the approaches, methodology,
analytical instrument and facts which previous studies have utilized and the
same time eliminate elements which may be in disagreement with the main text
and the proposed subject of the study.
Many
studies of motivation range from, Fedrick Taylor’s to, Vroom’s
expectancy, Douglas Mcgregor, Elton Mayo, Mc Cleland, Hertzberg, Abraham
Maslow and many others.
To
better understand the concept of motivation, it’s imperative for us to trace
its origin. The word “MOTIVATION” originated from latin word “MOVES”
which means move in its literal meaning. Motivation is the process of arousing
or attracting movement of individuals towards the realization of some set goals
or targets.
Thus,
it is this movement that helps the individual to move towards personal goals or
target of interest.
Theories
of motivation generally imply using one or two basic approaches for increasing
employees’ performance; the first being the “extrinsic motivation of employee
by means of an incentive programme. There are different types of extrinsic
rewards; promotion, worker orientation, supervision etc., but the most common
incentive is pay (Money) which can take many form such as salary and wages,
bonuses, social welfare allowance, like housing, transport, medical, insurance,
tax relief etc. It may be claimed that,
people work for money, but this simple link between work and money is
deceptive.
There
is little evidence, Bryan (1989) observed, to suggest that paying people
much will automatically make them work harder. Nor can it be implied that the
only satisfactions derived from work are monetary.
The
role which money, a reward for work plays as a motivator of human behavior and
performance, has been the subject of considerable research, and debate. But
over time have changed as its relative importance.
Lawler
(1971)
in his research findings on using pay to motivate job performance, describes
conditions under which pay incentives are most effective, and employed to
elicit performance. He said, that “under certain conditions pay can be used to
motivate good performance and productivity” that for pay plan to motivate
people, it must, create a belief among employees that good performance will
lead to;
i.
high pay.
ii. Contribute to the importance of pay.
related to good
performance; and
iv.
Minimize the perceived negative
consequences of performing well.
Hassan
(1991)
said it is noticeable that financial incentive, are not necessarily the primary
means of drawing the best out of the workers that individual workers are
motivated by different things apart from money. For many, opportunity
especially the Local Government staff, such as inducements as high position for
achievement, opportunity to use ability and other fringe benefit take
precedence over high wages- as long as wages are adequate to provide a decent
standard of living for the worker and his family.
Thus
the intrinsic aspects of a job alongside the operational conditions do affect job
performance, and not necessarily the pay.
Undoubtedly,
Sick (1967) also said, the most widely used incentive to motivate employees
is money. However, the evidence is overwhelming that more money does not
necessarily mean greater productivity. Money has no intrinsic value, yet we
recognized the economic worth of money in that it can be exchanged for goods
and service.
Dowling
and
Sayles (1978) said the ideas of using money as an inducement to
people to work harder is almost as old as money itself. For more than a century
now, people have been managed through the “punishment reward” system. However, the de-emphasize on money has reached
its apparent peak in the hypothesis of the needs hierarchy developed by two
noted social psychologists Maslow and Herzberg.
Notwithstanding,
the aforementioned assertion, however, there is a psychological emotionally
toned worth attached to money.
The
economic worth of money enables it to serve as a means of satisfying the basic
psychological and safety needs. Its psychological value is that, for many
persons, money may symbolize achievement, success, prestige or power.
More so, in a market economy (like Nigeria), work
and pay are inseparable. As Bryan said, without money, people cannot buy
the goods and service necessary for survival; they cannot advance in status in
the eyes of their fellow men, nor can they make material improvement in their
standard of living. Furthermore, money has consistently remained a sensitive
and crucial element in employees’ rewards, and issues affecting pay and the
likes are all capable of evoking very powerful emotions. One may notice that
the numbers of industrial disputes are largely expressed in term of pay. Hertzberg
(Ibid) also noted that the discussion of money and motivation should not
lead us to the conclusion that money is unimportant in the total process of motivating
employee; it is important. However, according to two factor theory of
motivation, money is a hygienic factor, not a motivator” It can help sustain
but not necessarily increase performance or productivity.
Positive
attitudes towards work arise from the job itself and function as motivators.
These incidents are associated with feeling of self-improvement, achievement,
and the desire for and acceptance of greater responsibility. The feelings
generated are of a relatively long duration and result in increased performance.
Notwithstanding,
in a developing country like Nigeria, Ngu (2002) said, pay in this
environment, cannot be under-estimated in evoking strong emotional reaction.
This is due to the cultural pressure, economic demands, socio-political
instability caused by the general state of high level of unemployment, diseases
and poverty that has become a burden on the average Nigeria worker. Pay,
indeed, do and can be effective motivation to performance.
This
of course, does not necessary means job satisfaction; the employee works to
fulfils his or basic and fundamentals needs for survival in an environment so
volatile and so demanding.
2.2.1
THE MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS
It
is relatively important to stress that the way and manner employees are
motivated vary from organization to organization. It ranges from the incentives
management provides to employees and the inter-personal relationship between
management and employees, and between employees and their immediate superior
officers.
The
incentives given by different management to motivate their workers ranges from,
bonus, free accident allowance, weekend allowance, transport allowance, housing
allowance, overtime pay, entertainment allowance, advances, Loans etc.. The above are not only the incentives provided
to motivate employees - there are many others and does not mean that all
organizations provide all these incentives to their employees because each
organization has its own form of incentives.
Incentives
provided are not the only things that can motivate employees in task
accomplishment in an organization but again like I said above, the relationship
between superior officers and subordinates or employees and the management
matters a lot.
2.2.2
THE IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION IN AN ORGANIZATION
The
research of Elton Mayo has been regarded as crucial to the success or failure
of organization. A manager/administrator needs to attract people into the organization,
maintain them and stimulate them to achieve the organizational goals. Once
employee morale is high, it means he/she has been motivated. According to Bedia
(1983), the importance of motivation in an organization cannot be under
estimated. Motivation attracts and sustains people in an organization. People
must be attracted (motivated) to join an organization and stay within.
It
is a vital ingredient for an organization to attain a high level of efficiency
and performance which is one of the major goals in any organization.
In
summary, the importance of motivation includes inter-alia;
I.
Motivation induces or encourages employees
in organization to put in their maximum best so as to enhance greater performance
for organization.
II.
Motivation reduces the rate of labour
turnover in an organization. It enhances the stability of the employees so that
they do not think of leaving the job. It helps in maintaining and retaining employees
in organization.
III.
Motivation helps in eliminating
disenchantment and frustration of employees in organization.
2.2.3
FACTORS THAT ENHANCE PERFORMANCE
Onoriode
(1973), vehemently believed that materials motivation like money and fringe
benefits cannot on the entirety induce employee to achieve a desire performance
level. What need to be done by the management is to identify the employees’
needs, work towards satisfying those needs and at the same time creating conducive
atmosphere for employees to perform effectively and efficiently.
The
factors that enhance employees’ performance are as follows:-
- The challenging nature of the job.
- Adequate interaction with co-workers.
- Recognition of one’s performance in the organization.
6. The
free flow of communication between superior and subordinate employees
- Employees participation in managerial decision.
- Re-designing jobs to allow employees for greater challenges and broader range of participation in the organizational activities.
- Conducive atmosphere for work
- Better welfare packages for the employees.
A
lot of literature deals with motivation as a basic psychological process. Also
a great deal of research has been conducted on motivation in the work place.
Such research has covered issues like job design, leadership style, the design
of compensation, promotional system and many others. However, the question of
what motivate employees to perform effectively is not easy to answer. Many
aspects are yet unexplored and there are many other alternative ways of
characterizing and organizing what is known about the relationship between
motivation and management.
Vroom
et’al (1964) gave three approaches which are used as
managerial or organizational strategies, for stimulating motivation.
These are paternalistic approach, scientific management approach and participative
management approach.
i.
Paternalistic Approach To Motivation
This
approach assumes that people will be motivated to perform their job effectively
if they are satisfied with their job. The more one reward workers, the harder
they will work.
The
greater the extent to which an employee’s needs are satisfied in his job, the
greater the extent to which he will respond, presumably with gratitude or
loyalty, by performing effectively on that job.
The
reward which are utilized in this approach are termed unconditional rewards in
the sense that the amount of reward that an individual receives is not
dependent in any clear cut way on how to behaves within the organization
but rather on the fact that he is a member of the organization. Example of
these rewards are pension plans, group insurance, subsidized education,
recreation programmes, comfortable working condition and the likes plus high
wage level, across the board wage increase, job security and predictable
promotion pattern.
This
approach has some implication for the administrator/manager and his
subordinates. If the administrator/ manager apply this to its fullest extent,
he would see to arrange the condition of work so that people would feel
comfortable, happy and secured. His primary goal will be that his subordinates would be able to get
things that they wanted and he would be assumes that as a consequence of this
support the subordinate will play enthusiasm and loyalty. However, there is
little evidence that any of these rewards can have any direct effect on employees’
productivity or performance. The conclusion therefore, is that the
paternalistic approach was not a very effective strategy for motivating employees
to perform effectively in their jobs. Perhaps” it might work little on job
satisfaction and indirectly on people’s decisions on whether or not to stay in
the organization. But it had relatively little effect on people’s decision
about how much they will produce while in the organization.
ii. Participation Management Approaches To
Motivation.
The
participation management approach assumes that individual can derived
satisfaction from doing an effective job per se; they can become ego involved
with their jobs, emotionally committed to doing them well and takes prides from
evidence that they are effective in furthering the objectives of the
organization. The assumptions underlying a participative approach to management
are more completely documented by McGregor when he talks about theory Y.
One
of the best basic elements of different theories of participative management is
the integration of the planning and the doing. The term “management by
objective” expresses a similar idea. In
essence the discretionary component is reduced. The person is given broads
goals or objectives and is able to determine for himself how they are to be
achieved. The basic assumption is that of a person has freedom in determining
how he will do his job as more of a challenge than if he is told exactly what
to do and when to do it.
The second common element of the theories of
participative management is the reduction in the use of authority as a means of
control. In essence, the superior or manager plays a helping role rather an
authoritative one. He is therefore, a resource of his ideas on his subordinate
to use, but he resists imposing his ideas on his subordinates concerning how
their jobs should be done.
According
to McGregor” the manager is a teacher, a consultant, a colleague rarely a boss”
Thirdly,
in the participative management approach there is much more reliance on the
utilization of work group as problem solving and decision-making unit. On
matter affecting the entire unit the supervisor does not make decisions
autocratically and issues orders to subordinates but rather he meet his subordinates
as a group and shares problems with them and encourages them to participate
with him in finding solutions to these problem. The opportunity to participate
in the decisions-making process is assumed with considerable justifications, to
create identification with corporate goals and objectives. The approach assumes
that incentives for effective performance are in the task or job itself or in
the individual’s relationship with members of his working team.
The
emphasis is on creating conditions under which effective performance can be a
goal rather than a means to the attainment of some other goal and the
philosophy is one of self-regulation rather than organizational control.
The
emphasis on internal control and self-regulation in participative management
assumes a particular set of needs or motives which are characteristic of man.
These needs are mostly those of higher ends of Maslow’s hierarchy it is
therefore possible that the effectiveness of participative management may also
depend on the strength of those motives among the people to be managed. Maslow
further speculated that the principles of participative management are most
useful in meaning to persons with strong need for self-actualization and are
primarily applicable in the more highly developed countries.
iii
Scientific Management Approach Of Motivation
This approach is based on the assumption that a
person would be motivated to work if reward that are penalties are tied
directly to his performance. The rewards are conditional rather than
unconditional. That is, they are attached to and made contingent upon effective
performance. The clearest example of the use of reward as a means of motivating
performance may be found in individual wage incentive. It is also shown in such practice as promoting
individuals on the basis of their merits and in recognizing and rewarding
people for special accomplishment. In addition, penalties are typically made
contingent upon falling below some minimal standard of performance e.g.
warning, reprimands or even dismissal for violation of rules and procedures.
This
approach constitutes an external control system. It defines the standard to be
used in the allocation of the reward in an objective or measurable fashion.
These standards may be formulated in terms of the method used by individual
when carrying out the job or in the result which is achieved. It is also
necessary to monitors the behavior of the individual to observe the extent to
which these standard are attained or adhered to.
2.3.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation
as a concept stressed on the fact that individual as employee in any
organizations has varied and numerous needs to satisfy. According to Koontz
et’al, some of these needs are primary while other ones are secondary.
The primary needs are mainly physiological (food, water, shelter, and
the body needs) while the secondary needs are purely psychological which are
esteem, status, afflation, accomplishment, growth, autonomy, power, and
realization of one’s potential. To bring such needs into focus, many theories
in management have overtime written extensively on the needs of human beings(employees),
propounding some theories which have accordingly gain world-wide recognition
and acceptability vis-à-vis the management of employees in organization. The
theories as developed by management authorities have expectedly underscored the
essence of motivation. However, as a result of the numerous works that are
available in this area, the researcher cannot exhaust all of them and so have
chosen few theories on motivation for this study.
And
these are;
2.Two
factor (motivation-hygiene) theory Frederick Herzberg 1959
3.E
R G theory of needs (Clayton P.Alderfer, 1972)
2.3.1 MASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEED THEORY
Maslow in
1954 developed a vigorous and sophisticated approach for classifying human
needs. He identified five levels of needs. They include:-
(i).
Physiological need (ii) Safety need (iii) Social needs (also called ego need)
(iv) Esteem need (v) Self- actualization (also called self fulfillment needs).
Maslow saw these needs as
forming a ladder in their order of importance to man.
These
needs progress from a lower to higher order. As each of them is satisfied, the
next need becomes dominant motivator of behavior.
a.
Physiological needs: These are basically human body needs
that must be satisfied in order to sustain life. Thus they are known as
being the strongest. They include food, shelter, clothing, health, water etc..
b.
Safety needs: When the physiological needs are
reasonable satisfied, the safety needs are activated. These includes
among other comfort, peace, protection against danger or deprivation, assurance
of long term and economic well being.
c.
Social needs: The next active motivator is social
needs. These are needs for affiliation, affections and friendship, group
participation and membership. According to Maslow, these can be achieve
within the work environment and suggest that every organization should create
an enabling environment for it to be achieved.
d.
Ego or self-esteem needs: These includes recognition
prestige, self-confidence, leadership, independence, achievement, knowledge,
status, appreciation and deserved respect of one’s fellow; According to the
theory, people (or employees in the organization) have constant craving for
more achievements, more knowledge and more recognition.
e.
Self- actualization or fulfillment needs: This is the ultimate need of man.
Maslow
defines
this need as” the desire to become everything that one is capable of
becoming”. Maslow said, this level of need comes up to dominate a person
or employee’s behavior after all lower level needs are reasonable satisfied.
This includes the need for doing things for the challenge of accomplishment,
intellectual curiosity, and creativity, acceptance of reality and feeling of
fulfillment.
Maslow emphasized that for employees
to be motivated; the manager/management has to make
effort to meet their higher level needs. To him and other social psychologists,
motivation can be achieved only to the extent that higher needs are met. They
emphasized that the higher level of the needs, the greater is its power to give
enduring satisfaction which will yield better performance.
2.3.2 TWO FACTOR (MOTIVATION HYGIENE) THEORY
(FREDERICK
HERZBERG
1959)
Herzberg
developed
a two factor theory on motivation which shows two set of factors that
influence the attitudes and behavior of employees; one which ranges from
satisfaction to no satisfaction and the other set ranges from dissatisfaction
to no dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the factors influencing
the satisfaction range are called motivation factors which are closely related
to the content of work. And they include;
1. Achievement (2) Recognition (3) Work
itself (4) Responsibility (5) Advancement.
The
set factor which causes dissatisfaction, the hygiene (maintenance) factors are
related to the work environment and include:-
Company/organization’s
policy and administration (2)
Supervision(3) Salary(4) Working condition.
According
to Herzberg, the motivators provide workers with intrinsic reward or job
satisfaction. Workers gain a sense of accomplishment - a feeling of being
important or of making their contribution from their job performance. Intrinsic
motivators develop internally and come from something the employees want to do.
As
for the hygiene factors, Herzberg said, if these hygiene factors are
absent or inadequate in any organization, there would be dissatisfaction among
the employees and may lead to dissatisfaction or poor performance. But if present,
they lead to job satisfaction but do not motivate employees to perform well. He
(Herzberg) saw these factors as being extrinsic, that
is, coming from outside the employee and that, they can only prevent
dissatisfaction when they are adequate. Herzberg therefore, recommends job
enrichment for the proper use of these two factors theory
2.3.3 THE E. R. G. THEORY OF NEEDS (CLAYTONS P.
ALDERFER 1972)
Another
content theory is that of Alderfer’s theory of needs. The Alderfer
needs theory unlike Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, theory has categorized
the needs of individual (employees) into three levels; Existence needs,
Relatedness needs and Growth needs.
-Existence
needs: are the physiological and security needs such as food,
shelter and clothing as well as good working conditions.
-Relatedness
needs: concern the social aspect of the individual’s life that is, it
involve relationship with the people, whether family, superior, subordinates
and friend etc
-Growth
needs: This takes care of self-esteem and self
actualization. These according to him are those that drive an individual
to have creative or productive influence on him or on the environment. The
theory states that;
(a) The
less existence needs are satisfied the more they will be desired. This is quite
similar to Maslow’s needs.
(b)
The less relatedness needs are
satisfied, the more they are desired, just like Maslow’s theory.
(d)
The less Growth needs, are satisfied, the more relatedness one are desired.
This is in consistent to Maslow’s theory. The theory pre-supposes that
more than one level of needs can give rise to motivation all at the same time.
2.3.4 MOTIVATION AND EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
In this research, we examined some motivational
theories, which considered views of authors on the relationship between
motivation and employee performance.
According to Ubeku 1975 quoted in Ukaejiofo 2013,
effective performance on the part of the employee is essential to the success
of any organization. Such performance
will lead to a great measure depending on their knowledge and skills, while the
knowledge and skills the individual employee have are important in determining
their job performance. However, these factors alone are not enough. A good
understanding of what motivates each individual is necessary to revel
how abilities and skills are utilized for optimal performance.
According to Herzberg’s two factor theory, money is
not really a motivator. The employee of
today has become so skillful and technological savvy that managers have to
think out of the box for new ways to motivate them. Many of them are earning high salaries and
therefore, money is not a big factor.
Managers need to provide challenging jobs to better
motivate today’s knowledge employees according to Ukaejiofo 2013. This is because the physical, material and
social needs that come with the job are already taken care of. Therefore, these employees tend to move on to
higher – level of needs such as ego (esteem) and self-actualization.
Work itself is a motivator according to Herzberg as
cited in Ukaejiofo 2013. Studies have
shown that satisfied employees are more productive. So in managing todays knowledge employees,
managers need to design jobs that are both challenging and satisfying. To design the right jobs, employee input
should be considered and addressed.
Other factors necessary to motivate employees
performance are team building; realistic goal setting, recognition, training,
targets, rewards and incentives, equity etc.
3.3.5 BRIEF PROFILE OF FEDERAL INLAND REVENUE
SERVICE
The
Federal Inland Revenue Service started as part of a colonial tax organisationunder
the name the Inland Revenue Department of Anglophone West Africa. The
department’s scope of administration covered Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone and
the Gambia
In
1943, the Nigerian Inland Revenue Department was carved out of the Inland
Revenue Department of Anglophone West Africa and established as an autonomous
body under the supervision of the Commissioner of Income Tax. The Nigerian
Inland Revenue Department consisted of :
- The Resident
- Chiefs and elders in each district
- Any native authority, which by native law and custom was recognized as a tax collection authority
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