PUBLIC RELATIONS AS A TOOL FOR INDUSTRIAL HARMONY

CHAPTER TWO:

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0     INTRODUCTION

Public relations started in Nigeria around 1978 and was established by colonial administration.  The man who spear headed this was Harold Cooper - he was in charge of Lagos Kaduna, Enugu,  Ibadan offices.

 He was first assigned to interpret government policies to the people with the aim of carrying out public relations functions for the government.  During World War II, Cooper and his counterparts dealt with programmes and problems of the war.  Later on public relations was introduced into railway cooperation.  At this time, the services of eminent Nigeria journalists were sought for.  After a while, John stoker took over from Cooper.  He looked for the service of other veteran journalist like Lijadu Mobolaji.  Between 1950 and 1960 major change like Nigeria Independence, the discovery of oil shift from trading to industrialization occurred. Big companies like UAC, Shell and BP were forced to start off public relations practice.

 In 1959 this establishment brought awareness organization film shows and lectures, with popularity of public relations.

In Nigeria in 1962 the public relations association of Nigeria was founded by Late Sam  Epelle and later on it became an affiliate of the British instituted of public relations with Chief Bob Okereke, Chief Abimbola, chief Bob Ogbuagu and Mr Ukpabi as pioneer members

 Public relations can truly mean the difference between life and death for an organization, or the difference between profitability and failure. Public relations is a means to maintain mutual beneficial relationships, to systematically listening to and understand the concerns of publics—internal publics, a labor union and the external public of news media.  Public relations initiatives, such as strategic issues management, could prevent problems encountered by organizations. Organization can recover its footing and repair its reputation and relationships, once it acknowledges its mistakes and commits to changing course.

Public relations is a conduit, a facilitator, and a manager of communication, conducting research, defining problems, and creating meaning by fostering communication among many groups in society. Public relations is a strategic conversation. As you might imagine, it is an ephemeral and wide-ranging field, often misperceived, and because of the lack of message control inherent in public relations, it is difficult to master.

You can find public relations in virtually every industry, government, and nonprofit organization.  Its broad scope makes it impossible to understand without some attention to the taxonomy of this diverse and dynamic profession.

Among the many competing definitions of public relations, J. Grunig and Hunt’s is the most widely cited definition of public relations: Public relations is “the management of communication between an organization and its publics.”  One reason this definition is so successful is its parsimony, or using few words to convey much information. It also lays down the foundation of the profession squarely within management, as opposed to the competing approaches of journalism or the promotion-based approach of marketing and advertising that focuses primarily on consumers.

2.1     THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The importance and choice of supporting this work with a theory is informed by its adequacy in explaining communication theories which helps the effectiveness of public relations in an organization.

In addition to enquiring entry qualification of its members, a profession needs to be grounded in a body of theory, develop theories and testing how they work in practice enable practitioners working in the field to make the best decisions about how they conduct their business, providing models to show how public relations works in theory can both validate practical public relations programs and obtain the need to take up a brand new way of tackling each project.

Perhaps, because public relations is a relatively recent entreat into the academic works, most of the theoretical frameworks are researched properly.  Communication theory was borrowed from electrical engineering, game theory borrowed from the social sciences and gratification theory from the study of mass communication.  All these theories help in planning a public relations campaign.

Communication theories by theorist Siebert are the explanation of some of the barrier in communication theory which helps us understand how people adopt new ideas even in difficult issues.

Game theory by Perse and Dunn is applicable to media relations users and gratification theory which emphasizes on why people choose the media they use.

Gratification theory propounded in 1940’s is the theory of public and the fine models of public relations which are used to plan public relations activities.

Think of the public relations function as a large umbrella profession encompassing many sub-functions. Those sub-functions are often independent units within an organization, sometimes reporting to public relations and sometimes reporting to other organizational units such as legal, marketing, or human resources.

Although there are many sub-functions that make up public relations, most people would identify two major types, corporate and agency. Corporate, or “in-house,” is a part of the organization or business.  

It functions to create relationships between an organization and its various publics. The second type of sub-function is associated with the public relations agency; its purpose is to assist organizations in a specific area of expertise. It is important to note that each sub-function may differ according to organizational structure and size.

Issues Management

Issues management is arguably the most important sub-function of public relations. Issues management is the forward-thinking, problem-solving, management-level function responsible for identifying problems, trends, industry changes, and other potential issues that could impact the organization. Issues management requires a formidable knowledge of research, environmental monitoring, the organization’s industry and business model, and management strategy.

Media Relations

The media relations sub-function is likely the most visible portion of public relations that an organization conducts because it deals directly with external media.  

The media relations sub-function is a largely technical function, meaning it is based on the technical skill of producing public relations materials, or outputs. 

Outputs are often related to tactics, and examples of tactics include news releases, podcasts, brochures, video news releases for the broadcast media, direct mail pieces, photographs, Web sites, press kits, and social media (digital media).

Community Relations

As the name implies, the community relations sub-function is responsible for establishing and maintaining relationships with an organization’s communities. Normally this territory implies a physical community, as in the borders of manufacturing facilities with their residential neighbors.

Financial and Investor Relations

Many managers do not realize that public relations is the function responsible for writing an organization’s annual report, quarterly earnings statements, and communicating with investors and market analysts. This type of public relations normally requires experience with accounting and financial reporting.

Marketing Communications

Marketing communications is also known as integrated marketing communications or integrated communications.  Publicity and product promotion targeting the specific public consumers is the focus of this sub-function.  

Public relations strategies and tactics are used primarily through a press agentry model meant to increase awareness and persuade consumers to try or buy a certain product.

Government Relations and Public Affairs

The public affairs of an organization are the issues of interest to a citizenry or community about which an organization must communicate. Government relations handles maintaining relationships with both regulatory agencies and appointed and elected officials.

Internal Relations

Maintaining an effective and satisfied workforce is the job of internal relations. Public relations professionals who specialize in internal relations have the primary responsibilities of communicating with intra-organizational publics, executives, management, administrative staff, and labour.

2.1.1 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN PUBLIC RELATIONS

Modern public relations can be traced back to less illustrious beginnings than the creation of a new democratic republic. 

 P. T. Barnum, of circus fame, made his mark by originating and employing many publicity or press agentry tactics to generate attention for his shows and attractions. Barnum was famous for coining the phrase, “There’s no such thing as bad publicity.”   He was even known to pen letters to the editor under an assumed name outing some of his attractions as hoaxes just to generate publicity and keep a story alive. Unfortunately, Barnum’s ethics left much to be desired.

Another pioneering public information counselor was a man named Ivy Ledbetter Lee, who revolutionized public relations practice at the time with the idea of telling the truth. Lee studied at Harvard Law School, but went on to find a job as a journalist.  After working as a successful journalist for a number of years, Ivy Lee realized that he had a real ability for explaining complicated topics to people, and had the idea of being a new kind of press agent. Rather than tricking the public, Lee saw his role as one of educating the public about truthful facts and supplying all possible information to the media. Ivy Lee opened the third public relations agency in the United States in 1904, representing clients such as the Pennsylvania Railroad, the Rockefeller family, and the Anthracite Coal Roads and Mine Company.   Lee became the first public relations practitioner to issue a code of ethics in 1906, based on his declaration that “the public be informed”—to replace railroad tycoon Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt’s infamous statement, “The public be damned.” 

In modern public relations, we often see a mixing of the public relations models among multiple tactics or communication tools within one public relations campaign. It is best to think of the models as theoretical constructs that, in implementation, become combined through the mixed motives of public relations. In most cases, public relations professionals not only want to aid their employer or client but also to assist the public outside the organization to access and understand the inner workings of the firm.

2.2. EMPIRICAL STUDY

2.2.1 PUBLIC RELATIONS AS A MANAGEMENT FUNCTION

Organizations usually have several management functions to help them operate at their maximum capacity: research and development, finance, legal, human resources, marketing, and operations.  Each of these functions is focused on its own contribution to the success of the organization. Public relations’ unique function is to help the organization develop and maintain relationships with all of its key publics and stakeholders by effectively communicating with these groups. Communication is a key in maintaining a satisfactory, long-term, trusting relationships with publics and stakeholders.

In an effective organization, all the major functions are linked together by a common set of strategies that tie in to an overall vision of the future.

2.2.2  PUBLIC RELATIONS ROLES

In general, public relations professionals can be communication managers who organize and integrate communication activities, or they can be communication technicians who primarily write and construct messages. Research in this area led to the identification of four specific roles: the technician role and three types of communication managers.

This role requires executing strategies with the communication tactics of news releases, employee newsletters, position papers, media placements, Web site contents, speeches, blogs, and social media messaging.  Practitioners in this role are usually not involved in defining problems and developing solutions, but base their tactics on the technical skill of writing. According to Cutlip, Center, and Broom, the goal of this role is “to provide both management and publics the information they need for making decisions of mutual interest.”

The problem-solving facilitator collaborates with other managers to define and solve problems. This role requires that the professional is a part of the dominant coalition of the organization and has access to other senior managers. The problem-solving facilitator helps other managers think through organizational problems using a public relations perspective.

Research on these four roles found that the communication technician role was distinct from the other three roles and that the latter three roles were highly correlated.   In other words, an expert prescriber was also likely to fulfill the role of the communication facilitator and the problem-solving facilitator. To resolve the lack of mutual exclusiveness in the latter three roles, they were combined into one role: communication manager. The dichotomy between the communication technician and the communication manager more accurately explained the responsibilities of public relations practitioners within organizations.

A study on excellence in the practice of public relations found that one of the major predictors of excellence was whether the role of the top public relations executive was a manager role or a technician role.   Those in the management role were much more likely to have a positive impact on the organization’s public relations practice.

2.2.3  ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS FOR EXCELLENT PUBLIC RELATIONS

The International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) study on Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management (Excellence Study) found three primary variables for predicting excellence: communicator knowledge, shared expectations about communication, and the character of organizations.   The Excellence Study found that communicator expertise was not enough to predict the best practices of public relations.  There had to be shared expectations between the communications function and senior management or dominant coalition. If the chief executive officer (CEO) and other top managers expect the public relations function to be strategic and contribute to the organization’s bottom-line goals, they often require and support practices that included research and strategic planning and management rather than simply press releases and media placement.  Grunig, J. E. (1992).

Value of Public Relations

In order to gain a strategic management role in the organization, the public relations function must show its value to management.  Hambrick (1981, pp. 253–276) said that coping with uncertainty is the basis for demonstrating value.   Technology, workflow, and external environments all contribute to creating uncertainties and, therefore, strategic contingencies. Excellent public relations should help an organization cope with the uncertainties. This can be achieved only with data and useful information. Information theory posits that data are only useful inasmuch as they reduce uncertainty.

When the public relations function provides information and feedback about stakeholder needs and expectations, it performs a critical task for the organization that is unique to its function. Saunders (1981, pp. 431–442) suggested that reducing uncertainty, performing a critical task, and being non-substitutable and pervasive all contribute to the influence of any function in an organization. 

Organizational Structure

Organizational structure can, of course, have an impact on communication because of the reporting structures and flow of information in the organization. The typical structure of a simplified organization can be seen in , with direct reporting relationships represented as solid lines.

Figure 1; Simple Organizational Structure

In this figure, a service or information arm would likely be present, but the concern is to focus on the role of the chief communications officer (CCO) relative to the other members of the dominant coalition, all reporting to the CEO. Those executives may vary from organization to organization and industry to industry, depending on the size of the pursuit, how complex it is, and how many sites it operates.

2.2.4  PUBLIC RELATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

Management theory has defined organizational effectiveness in a number of ways. Early theories of management stressed meeting goals as measures of effectiveness. This approach proved to be rather simplistic and did not recognize the interconnectedness of organizations with their environments. A systems model approach was developed as a reaction to the limitations of the goal-attainment perspective.  However, the systems approach tends to be too abstract to measure effectiveness. A third approach, which recognizes the dependency of the organization on its environment, places specific focus on key constituents and is more measurable because of its focus on relationships with stakeholders.

This approach, which is often called stakeholder management, recognizes the value of strategic constituents to the success of any organization, and recognizes that the interests of these stakeholders often conflict.

2.2.5 SYSTEMS THEORY APPROACH

The view of organizations as open social systems that must interact with their environments in order to survive is known as the systems theory approach. Organizations depend on their environments for several essential resources: customers who purchase the product or service, suppliers who provide materials, employees who provide labour or management, shareholders who invest, and governments that regulate. According to Cutlip, Center, and Broom (2006), public relations’ essential role is to help organizations adjust and adapt to changes in an organization’s environment. 

The open-systems approach was first applied by Katz and Kahn (1966), who adapted General Systems Theory to organizational behavior.  This approach identifies organizational behavior by mapping the repeated cycles of input, throughput, output, and feedback between an organization and its external environment.

Theoretically, systems can be considered either open or closed.  Open organizations exchange information, energy, or resources with their environments, whereas closed systems do not.

In reality, because no social systems can be completely closed or open, they are usually identified as relatively closed or relatively open.

The distinction between closed and open systems is determined by the level of sensitivity to the external environment. Closed systems are insensitive to environmental deviations, whereas open systems are responsive to changes in the environment. The systems approach is an external standard that measures effectiveness based on long-term growth or sustainability.

Most effective organizations, according to systems theory, adapt to their environments. Pfeffer and Salancik (1978),  described the environment as the events occurring in the world that have any effect on the activities and outcomes of an organization.  

Organizations that exist in dynamic environments must be open systems in order to maintain homeostasis. Because dynamic environments are constantly changing, they create a lot of uncertainty about what an organization must do in order to survive and grow. The key to dealing with uncertainty is information. An open organization monitors its environment and collects information about environmental deviations that is labeled as input. Input can also be thought of as a form of feedback. The most important information is negative input, according to systems theorists, because this information alerts the organization to problems that need to be corrected. Negative input tells the organization that it is doing something wrong and that it must make adjustments to correct the problem; positive input tells the organization that it is doing something right and that it should continue or increase that activity.

Systems theory, however, is not without some shortcomings. The first shortcoming relates to measurement, and the second is the issue of whether the means by which an organization survives really matter. Robbins noted that one criticism of this approach is that its focus is on “the means necessary to achieve effectiveness rather than on organizational effectiveness itself.”  Measuring the means, or process, of an organization can be very difficult when compared to measuring specific end goals of the goal-attainment approach.

2.2.6  CONSTRUCTING THE STRATEGIC PLAN FOR A PUBLIC RELATIONS CAMPAIGN

This process is primarily composed of four steps: using research to define the problem or situation, developing objectives and strategies that address the situation, implementing the strategies, and then measuring the results of the public relations efforts.

Sometimes acronyms, such as John Marston’s RACE (research, action planning, communication, evaluation) or Jerry Hendrix’s ROPE (research, objectives, programming, evaluation) are used to describe the process.   

You’ll notice that the process always starts with research and ends with evaluation. Although it is easier to remember such acronyms, the four steps are essentially the following:

1.     Use research to analyze the situation facing the organization and to accurately define the problem or opportunity in such a way that the public relations efforts can successfully address the cause of the issue and not just its symptoms.

2.     Develop a strategic action plan that addresses the issue that was analyzed in the first step. This includes having an overall goal, measurable objectives, clearly identified publics, targeted strategies, and effective tactics.

3.     Execute the plan with communication tools and tasks that contribute to reaching the objectives.

4.     Measure whether you were successful in meeting the goals using evaluation tools.

2.2.7 THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Public relations is a large discipline that can be subdivided into many functions. There are major areas of functional responsibility or different locales in which we can categorize the profession of public relations:

1.     Government/public affairs

2.     Corporate public relations

3.     Agency public relations

These primary functional areas differ but also have the commonality of using the strategic management process. Here, the research will only stress on the government relations and Public affairs.

 

Government Relations and Public Affairs

Government relations and public affairs are the types of public relations that deal with how an organization interacts with the government, with governmental regulators, and the legislative and regulatory arms of government. The government relations and public affairs are discussed together in this section; the two functions are often referred to as synonyms, but there are very minor differences. Government relations is the branch of public relations that helps an organization communicate with governmental publics. Public affairs is the type of public relations that helps an organization interact with the government, legislators, interest groups, and the media. These two functions often overlap, but government relations is often a more organization-to-government type of communication in which regulatory issues are discussed, communication directed to governmental representatives takes place, lobbying efforts directed at educating legislators are initiated, and so on. A strategic issue is any type of issue that has the potential to impact the organization, how it does business, and how it interacts with and is regulated by the government.

Heath contends that “public policy issues are those with the potential of maturing into governmental legislation or regulation (international, federal, state, or local).” 

Public affairs is the external side of the function that deals more broadly with public policy issues of concern among constituents, activists, or groups who lobby the government on behalf of a certain perspective. Public affairs are often issues of public concern that involve grassroots initiatives, meaning that everyday citizens organize and create a movement in favour of a certain issue or perspective. In that case, public affairs specialists would work to resolve conflict or negotiate on behalf of an organization, working with these groups to create an inclusive solution to problems.

Public affairs specialists act as lobbyists on behalf of their organizations, and they interact with public who are interested in lobbying the government for legislation regarding particular issues. Public affairs specialists might focus on a particular area of public policy, such as international trade agreements or exchange rates, security and terrorism, equitable wages and working conditions, the regulatory process, safely disposing of production by-products, and so on. The list of public policy issues with which an organization must contend is practically endless.

In some organizations, the governmental relations arm or public affairs unit is coupled with issues management, or it can even be the same public relations executive responsible for both roles. Issues management and public affairs are extremely close in their responsibilities, goals, and activities. Both issues management and public affairs seek to facilitate interaction between organization and the government or governments with whom it must deal, and to incorporate and update organizational policy in accordance with governmental standards. However, issues management is the larger function because it deals not only with governmental and regulatory publics but also many other types of publics. The governmental relations or public affairs function is more narrowly focused on legislative, regulatory, and lobbying issues.

Public affairs can be used in a corporate setting to interact on policy and legislation with the government, interest groups (or, as discussed in the following section, activist publics), and the media. An organization must also use public affairs to communicate about policy and procedures with investors, regulatory public, employees, and internal public, as well as communities and customers. 

2.2.7  BACKGROUND HISTORY OF THE FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

Federal Ministry of Education is the government body that directs education in Nigeria. It was established in 1988.

It functions include: Formulating a national policy on education. Collecting and collating data for purposes of educational planning and financing. Maintaining uniform standards of education throughout the country, controlling the quality of education in the country through the supervisory role of the Inspectorate Services Department within the Ministry, harmonizing educational policies and procedures of all the states of the federation through the instrumentality of the National Council on Education, effecting co-operation in educational matters on an international scale and finally, developing curricula and syllabuses at the national level in conjunction with other bodies.

It is located at Block 5A (8th Floor), Federal Secretariat Complex, Shehu Shagari Way, Central Area, P.M.B. 146, Garki, Abuja, Nigeria, Abuja.