ETHNO RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE AND DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter will mainly review and discuss the most vital and relevant literature written in relevance to research question of this study. The relationship between ethno religious violence and  development in Nasarawa State, as well the factors responsible for ethno religious violence in Nigeria will be dealt with in this chapter. Discourses on these vital topics have become not only necessary, but essential for better understanding of religious violence not only in Nigeria but in the world at large (Aliyu S. 2009).

This chapter will use mainly secondary sources of literature like articles, books and contemporary journals related to the study theme. Numerous books and articles have been written on these particular topics and as such critical reviews of these sources are also available for further studies. In order to achieve this, all efforts will be concentrated on conceptualizing the various aspects of the  study for the enhancement and better understanding of the issues that will be raised in this research. This chapter will also explore all variables of the subject matter with a view to establishing the relationship between them. And lastly, this chapter will provide an overview of other research works relevant to this field in order to clarify and fill the gap between them.

2.2: VIOLENCE AND RELIGION

Violence caused by religious and ethnic differences is often referred to as ethno-religious violence. The act of violence perpetrated by groups and movements has inevitably brought into focus the need to critically study and understand what really constitutes ethno-religious conflicts. Numerous groups are linked to one religious organization or another for attention (Ananymous 2002).

For example, in his books: The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (1993) and Global Rebellion: Religious Challenges to the Secular State (2008), Mark Juergensmeyer painted a provocative picture of the emerging religious revolutionaries altering the political landscape of the Middle-East, South Asia, Central Asia and, to an extent, Eastern Europe. The impassioned leaders in Maghreb regions and of Palestine, political rabbis in Israel, militant Sikhs in India and the triumphant Catholic clergy in Eastern Europe are all actors in Juergensmeyer’s area study of explosive opposed Western values and ideas of secular nationalism He asserted that;

Groups such as Hamas, Khaliatan Movement, Christian Identity, and Jewish Right Wing have used violence to draw attention to them and also articulate the concerns of those within their wider cultures.

This type of violent act is often considered by its adherents as extreme but yet understandable and ultimately justifiable.

The World   Council   of   Churches’   Conference, Florida, February, 8-12-2002 was a conference organized by international fellowship of Christian Churches built on the foundation of encounter, dialogue and collaboration.

The discourse of the conference was centered on how some religious groups on one hand condemn violence and other on the other encourages and even justifies its usage. In further discourse, the conference suggest that,

Religious traditions can be resources for building peace and the same time, religious communities often play a role of advocating and justifying violence. In the face of structural violence, religious traditions should help us to overcome the lust for power, control and possession of material goods that are the driving impulses of violence and violent systems.

The conference further highlights key elements that characterize the relationship between ethno religious violence and development. These elements are:

Silence: Religious communities often maintain silence in the face of violence and off-course there are many reasons for doing so. Some of these reasons include: the concern for their own communities and its structures (development), and the role of helping their followers to feel satisfied in the status quo and in their own material prosperity without a concern for the marginalized

Sanctification: More often religious communities justify the use of violence by the state or extra state entities or by objectives of the state and the textual/canonical legitimization of violence against women.

Expansion: Almost in all cases, religious communities use violence solely for the purpose of spreading themselves or expanding their growth. For example, the crusade campaign, Islamic holy wars, Hindu riots just to mention a few.

Image  of  God:  Some  religions  portray a  violent  image  of  God  just  like  the  Sango the God of thunder and other deities in various religions. This violent image of the divine has created problems and implication for the self-understanding of believers.

The above list exposes some of the problematic aspects of the relationship between religion and violence, while the following point to constructive forms of engagement.

Unmasking/opposing: Religious communities have played a role in opposing violence both within their community and others, most especially when others are injured.

Models of Non-violence: Every religion in this world claimed to be peaceful and in earnest preaches the gospel of peace and non-violence.

Limiting Violence: Religions have often played a significant role in checking the levels of violence or ‘humanizing it’. In of violence is permitted for the defense of good but with the understanding that  we are falling short of the ideal and thus need forgiveness.

It is interesting to note that, the perpetrators of this violent act are rarely different from the orthodox and Islamic groups or mainstream religious groups. However, it’s not their spirituality that on text is unusual and world views. The contemporary emergences of new religious movements are in reality, religious responses to social situation and the expression deeply held convictions.

2.3: ETHNO RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA

This heading will extensively analyze various scholarly works and most especially on those literatures that dwell on the factors responsible for ethno religious violence in Nigeria.

Islam in Nigeria: Its Concept, Manifestation and Role in Nation Building is a chapter written by Umar, S. M in a book titled Nigeria Since Independence: The First Twenty Five Years, by Ashiwaju G. and Abubakar Y. (Published in Ibadan by Heinemann in 1989). In this book, Umar pointed out that, there was a crack in the edifice of confidence among the Islamic elites by their fellow Muslims. The Islamic elites are deeply engrossed in material acquisition, they coined to their whims for example the prohibition of usury to suits their economic gain. He also opined that the legal manifestation of Islam was destroyed because the so called elites could not enforce shariah (Islamic law). Despite the abundance of mosque, yet, there was little observance of moral precepts. The Islamic scholars engaged in primitive distractions and obstructions.

Educational and or intellectual manifestation appears so helpless and important that they could not control deviations. In spite of the formation of the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, richly endowed by the Pakistani, Yusuf Fardi, and the Council failed to be effective in instilling sufficient authority in influence over their followers. Thus, the baton was passed to students, the unemployed youth and exploitative Islamic scholars to protect Islam in the way they knew best. This however, coincided with the charismatic Pentecostals who dared further into the Muslim North with greater confidence and acquired followers which in turn exacerbated worse the matters. This however, brought Christians in the North and South together and this mass ecumenical unification raised alarms of immense political importance (Umar, 1989).

Ethno-Religious   Conflicts   and   The   Travails   of Fourth Republic, is a book written by Lanre Olu-Adeyemi of the Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Adekunle Ajasin University, in Ondo state of Nigeria. This author ascertained that, the character of the Nigerian state is primarily responsible for the deepening ethno-religious violence in Nigeria. The plurality of Nigeria incubates constant feeling of distrust and hatred between various component units and as well the fear of one group subjugating another.

2.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING ETHNO-RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE

The factors influencing ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria have been attributed by many scholars to the failure of political elites to accept and practice

democratic ethics and principles of justice, equity, accountability and the rule of law.

Religion and ethnicity has been an integral part of Nigerian society and as such, becomes a critical factor in ethno-religious conflict. Many analysts have attributed the conflicts in the far Nasarawa State to ethnic and religious differences. This difference has to do with, accusations and allegations of neglect, exploitation, oppression, discrimination, victimization, marginalization, bigotry and nepotism. In Nigeria, just like any other nation, there is no fair agreement based on justice and equality on how wealth, power and status are to be shared among individuals and groups.

For better understanding the causes of ethno-religious violence in Nasarawa State of Nigeria as whole, it will be more appropriate to categorize this vast topic into the following sub headings:

2.4.1 POLITICAL FACTOR

The most intriguing and widely acknowledge factor influencing conflict undoubtedly and unarguably is politics and the role of political elites who invoke ethnicity and religious mobilization to gain political power. Indeed most of the ethno-religious crisis can be traced back or attributed to this cause. The failure of the Nigerian leaders to establish good governance, foster national unity and integration and the will to promote real economic growth through just and well articulated policies, has no doubt led to mass poverty and a high rate

of unemployment.

It is this failure and negligence that culminated into the communal, religious and ethnic conflict that has now characterized the Nigerian polity.

Idealness, despair and loss of hope are the products of absolute poverty and high rate of unemployment have left people with little or no choice other than to indulge in crimes Akinwale, A. A. (2010).

The long years of military rule encouraged and legalized the use of force and violence against any group, tribe or its affiliates in order to implement the so-called social change and attainment of set goals and demands. And unfortunately, the return to democracy did not help the situation but instead worsened the situation even more, through power sharing, and election malpractices. Some Nigerians shared the opinion that, there is no religious crisis but access to power and credible system of sharing power.

According to Lewis; “The widespread election irregularities and perception that the vote was manipulated by political elites using patronage and violence to gain office has produced an atmosphere of resignation cynicism”. Hilary Clinton also highlighted and attributed ethno-religious conflicts to governments neglect; she said that “The most immediate source of poverty is the failure of governance at the federal, state and the local levels and Lack of transparency and accountability has eroded the legitimacy of the government and contributed to the rise of groups that embrace violence and reject the authority of the state”.

2.4.2  ECONOMIC FACTOR

The economic factor has been identified by many as a one of the main major causes of ethno-religious conflicts in Nassarawa State and even beyond. Many theorists opined that competition over scares resources is always a driving factor that fuel and breeds violence. Nigeria just like any other multi-ethnic societies in Africa, Ethnic and even sometimes religious communities tend to violently compete for property rights, social amenities, health care facilities, jobs, education and most controversial cultural or linguistic dominance Albert, I. (2001).

The economic factor, however triggered the explosion of the social starter of traditional African societies which characterized as, the family, religion, education, law and at large, the political system that cared for the well being of all citizens. Certainly, the disintegration and malfunction of all these vital institutions has evidently increased ethnic and religious conflicts. The inability of many families to adequately feed themselves, results in divorce, immorality, drunkenness, idleness and broken homes. This by and large, leads to large reserve of youth who could easily be recruited for the execution of ethnic or religious violence. Lack of proper education and the poor state of Nigerian educational system has enormously contributed to this calamity. The religious institution preached more of hate and disunity messages than love and unity Best, S. G. (2007).

2.4.3 COLONIAL LEGACY

The growth of ethno-religious conflict in Nigeria has its foundation from the activities and legacies of the colonial master. The annexation of Lagos with gunboat in 1861, Yorubaland in 1898, Kanem Borno in 1902 and Sokoto caliphate in 1903 paved way for British full control of what later become Nigeria in 1914. The British colonial rule is no doubt the most important factor for analyzing the contemporary identities and religious conflicts in Nigeria. The colonial masters regrouped Nigerians into a culturally artificial political entity, for example, they encouraged and promoted steady completion and mobilization of power and resources in the newly created states, thereby breeding ethnic and religious conflicts. The colonial urban centers are very fundamental in the creation of ethnic contacts, completion, consciousness and organization/mobilization. These urban centers mainly comprises of colonial cities, mining, commercial and administrative cities, they encourage formation of kingship, lineage and ethnic associations as a means to fight insecurity, instability, alienation and challenges of colonial urban city life Egwu, S. (2001).

The British through the indirect rule system fostered an uneven socio-economic and political development and mal-integration of the various Nigerian people. For instance, Christian missionaries were barred from any activity in Northern Nigeria.

The highly priced missionary schools were not build in the North, This activity undoubtedly created a huge educational imbalance. The British also promoted officially the segregation of residential settlement based on ethnicity and religion. The establishment of Federal structure of three units, thereby diving the country into three ethnically dimensional parts (North/Hausas, West/Yoruba’s and East/Igbo’s),created tensions not only among the three dominant groups but also a system that marginalizes the minorities.

Other Influencing Factors are environmental and demographic factors also play a vital role in fuelling ethno-religious conflicts in Nasarawa State, Nigeria, or I can say Nigeria as a whole. The Sahalian drought of the 1970s and 1980s and coupled with the subsequent desert encroachment and desertification have adversely abated the grazing land and almost if not completely destroyed pastoral livelihood and as well aggravated food, water and insecurity Harpur, T. (2004).

2.5IMPACTS/CONSEQUENCES OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS

2.5.1 POLITICAL IMPACT

The under-current ethno-religious conflict in Nasarawa State of Nigeria has severely affected the political stability of the region. Political stability refers to the ability of any political system to maintain poise all its ramifications.

It also implies the ability of an eligible government to preserve and carry out its required duties and retaining the support of its people within the framework of the established system Ibrahim, I. M. (2000). The ubiquitous nature of ethno-religious crises, which resulted to widespread of breakdown of law and order, reflects clearly the failure of local and state government. The under-current situation also reflects the inability and ineffectiveness of the governments to put in place effective and viable measure that will guarantee security and well being of the people. And therefore, this prevalence has no doubt remained a major source of political instability in state history.

It is important to note that, the phenomenon of ethno-religious conflict poses severe threats to the peaceful co-existence, political stability, meaningful development and, ultimately, to the state and national security of the people and Nigerian polity at large. People no longer have faith in the government; this resulted in people taking law into their own hands by taking up arms in the name of self-defense.

In 1999, Nigeria return to civilian rule after 15 years of long unbroken military dictatorships, hopes were very high that democracy would restore political stability cum rapid development and economic growth. But unfortunately, Nigeria’s democracy was in ethnic characterized and religious by violence; it was estimated that more than 20,000 had been killed in clashes mainly related to ethnic and religious groups across Nigeria and as well displaced over a

million people Imoghe, T. A. (2003).

2.5.2 ECONOMIC IMPACT

There is no doubt that economic activities have been seriously hampered by the scourge of ethno-religious conflicts. Many people have lost their lives and properties, while many completely lost their sources of livelihood, thereby increasing the already saturated labor market and unemployment. Many resources that were meant for developmental projects were diverted to relief services and deployment of security personnel. Most Igbo people have retreated back to their homeland in the South thereby creating a very vast economic vacuum in the North.

2.5.3 SOCIAL IMPACT

I remember growing up in the Northern Nigeria and how peacefully and harmoniously we used to live. There is no hatred or tension between ethnicity and religion among people, Christians and Muslims, Hausa and Igbo celebrate functions together, be it Sallah or Esther and Christmas. We very closely share almost everything around us. But unfortunately, things have now changed drastically, people no longer celebrate things together, neighborhoods are now separated according to religion and ethnicity. The recent ethno-religious conflicts have affected enormously the social strata in Nigeria. People are displaced and many have resorted to going back to their roots and the only few that stayed happened send their families away to other part of Nigeria where tensions are less. Social functions are now restricted to religion and ethnicity.

2.5.4 IMPACT ON STATE AND NATIONAL SECURITY

The failure of local and state government to effectively perform its primary duty of providing and guaranteeing the security of the lives and property of its people has drastically affected its bargaining power and capacity to deal with ethno-religious conflicts and this severely threatens state and national security. In lieu of this, loyalty to ethnicity or religion is being placed by the people far and above loyalty to the state.

The volatile nature of ethno-religious violence has also effectively undermined the core duty of the Nigerian Police and other security agencies. For instance, attacks on police stations and outposts have led to the killing of many police officers, vandalizing of security facilities and looting of armories, which often fall into the wrongs hands Martin, A. L. ( 2010).

2.6. SUMMARY OF REVIEW

Ethnicity and religion do not necessarily in themselves manifest into conflicts but it is the politicization of these identities that breeds tension and violence. These differences in identities become problematic when equal access to fair participation in political system in terms of power and equitable resource sharing favors one group at the detriment of another in any giving society. The inability of the government to adequately perform its duty of protecting and providing its citizens with basic societal needs results in tension and lack of trust for the state. The Nasarawa State experience as regards to ethnic and religious conflicts has now become a major factor as politics is defined along religion and ethnicity.

It is argued in this study that some of the major causes of ethno-religious conflict in Nasarawa State  of Nigeria are government negligence, a high level of illiteracy, and the issue of poverty, which was a result of economic deprivation through state policies. Equally, this research work suggested that the best way of resolving this issue is through evolution of dynamic policies and implementation that will address the problems of education, poverty and social relations within the micro and macro society.

2.6.1  BRIEF HISTORY OF NASARAWA STATE

Nassarawa is made up of thirteen local government areas namely; Wamba, Kokona, Keana, Nassarawa/Eggon, Toto, Awe, Akwanga, Keff, Karu, Lafia, Obi, Doma and Nassarawa. It is bounded in the north by Kaduna state, in the west by the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, in the south by Kogi and Benue States and in the east by Taraba and Plateau States.
The state is bounded on the north by Kaduna State, on the South by Benue State, on the East by Plateau & Taraba States, while on the West by The Federal Capital Territory & Kogi State.

Nasarawa state was created in 1996 out of neighbouring Plateau state. Located in the North-Central region of Nigeria, it is bordered on the West by the Federal Capital Territory, the North by Kaduna, the South by Benue and Kogi, and on the East by Plateau and Taraba states.

There are 29 languages spoken as first languages in Nasarawa State namely: agatu, ake, alago, arum-tesu, basa, basa-gumna, bu, duhwa, ebira, eggon. eloyi, gade, gbayi, gbari, goemai, gwandara, ham, hasha, kofyar, lijili, mada, mama, ninzam, numana-nunku-gwantu-numbu, nungu, tiv, toto, wapan, yeskwa. Major languages are Agatu, Basa, Eggon, Gbagyi, Gade, Goemai, Gwandara, Ham, Kofyar, and Lijili but the common language spoken among the people is Hausa.