SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

1.            The basic unit of chemical substances is             =        Atom

2.            List three constituents of atom and their respective charges =

Constituents                         Charge

i.   Proton                            +ve

ii.  Electron                          -ve

iii. Neutron                           nil

3.            State the constituent elements of the following compounds

i. C₆ H₁₂0₆ (ii) NaC1 (iii)CaC0₃  (iv) H₂S0₄

Answer:

i.             = Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

ii.           Sodium and Chlorine

iii.         Calcium, Carbon and Oxygen

iv.          = Hydrogen, Sulphur and Oxygen

4.            Define a non-renewable material resource and give four example of it .

Answer: A non-renewable material resource is a resource said to be limited in supply i.e. it is exhaustible.  E.g. i. Crude petroleum ii. Coal deposit iii. Iron ore and iv. Gold

5.            The gradual use up of a non-renewable resource is known as? Answer: Depletion of half life of a resource.

6.            The three factors that can help to mitigate the scarcity of a non-renewable resource are: a. Technological invention b. Substitution & c. Recycling

7.            The efficiency of petrol can be described as: Octane number

8.            The method of converting heavy hydrocarbon molecules to lighter ones is: Cracking

9.            A common impurity in petrol is: Sulphur

10.         List three gaseous pollutants in air with at least one adverse effect each: i. Carbon Monoxide (CO); it poison the respiratory system by forming Carbon haemoglobin with haemoglobin, hence there is shortage of oxygen in the system ii. Sulphur dioxide (SO₂); This is mainly responsible for rain which attack metals and textile materials  iii. Carbon dioxide ; (CO2); this is a greenhouse gas, hence it leads to global warning i.e increase in the temperature of the earth

11.         Acid rain is caused by Sulphur Trioxide combining with rain Water =SO₃ + H₂O – H₂SO₄

12.         Metabolic toxin that specifically attack the nerve cell are: Neurotoxins

13.         Give one example of: (i) Teratogens (ii) Carcinogens (iii) Asphyxiants (iv) Allergens; i. Thalidomide ii. Asbestos iii. Carbon Monoxide iv; formaldehyde

14.         Give three uses of radioactive isotopes i. It is used as tracers in chemical and biological reactions ii. It is used in geological studies for dating purposes iii. It is used for the eradication of cancerous growths.

15.         List any three risk of hazardous wastes i. Habitat destruction ii. Soil contamination iii. Ground water contamination

16.         The three species in the genus Homo are i. Homo habilis (handy man) ii. Homo erectus (upright man) iii. Homo Sapiens

17.         Australopithecus and Ramapithecus are the  Forerunners of man

18.         A hypothesis is a testable, tentative, probable explanation of the relationship between two or more variables that create a state of affairs or phenomenon

19.         The stone age is categorized into 3 distinct culture namely; i. Lower Paleolithic culture ii. Upper Paleolithic Culture and iii. Neolithic Culture

20.         Paleolithic culture is divided into Lower and Upper Paleolithic Culture

21.         Man is classified with prosinian monkeys and ape as Home Sapiens

22.         The earliest fossil record was excavated in the year 1925

23.         Complete the following biological names of inhabit of Paleolithic CultureZijanthropus Bosei, Jara man (Pithecanthropus erectus), Perking (Sinonthropus Erectus) Neanderthal Man (Homo Neanderthal sis) Rhodesian man

24.         The necklace invented by the Neolithic man was made from Bones

25.         The invention of bone needle, harpoon, Bow and arrow is associated with Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic Culture

26.         The tools of the Neolithic culture are superior because They were made by Grinding and Polishing stones

27.         Modem man most distinctive characteristic is the Brain

28.         The three primate adoptions are: Upright Posture, Binocular Stereoscopic Vission and Upright Posture

29.         Rafts, Bone needle, pattern are few inventions of Neolithic Culture

30.         Science as a body of knowledge is divided into Pure and Applied Science

31.         A Scientific theory is A hypothesis that has been extensively tested and proven

32.         One of the following is not fundamental physical quantity:

(a) Velocity (b) man  (c) time (d) length

33.         The full meaning of SI unit is (a) Symbol Invention (b) Scientific Information (c) System International (d) System Information

34.         Which of the following readings was possibly taken by Vermier Calliper: (a) 6.4cm (b) 6.114cm (c) 1.234m (d) 1.23cm

35.         If the mass of a school chair is 4060g calculate the weight.  Let acceleration due to gravity be 10m/s.  (a) 40.66W (b) 4.117N (c) 4.60W (d) 40.60N

36.         The weight of a body vary from place to place because (a) the earth is perfectly spherical (b) the earth is not perfectly spherical (c) the weight is the quantity of matter (d) mass is attractive and weight is not

37.         The Capacity for doing work is called = Energy

38.         If a force of 25 Newton’s moves a body through a distance of 200cm. What is the work done? (a) 25W (b) 2025N (c) 50 W (d) 50J

39.         One of the following is not a form of energy: Comprehensive

40.         If a mass of 3kg moves, with a velocity 2m/s, it has a kinetic energy of (a) 6J (b)30J (c) 20KJ (d) 600J

41.         An iron block of mass 2000g was raised through a height of 2m, the gravity is 10 mis, find the potential energy at this height (a) 45 H (b) 40J (c) 44km (d) km

42.         One of the following is the formula for kinetic energy (a) mgh (b) (v-u) (c) ½ mv² (d) mgh²

43.         The time rate at which work is done is called (a) working time (b) energy (c)work time (d) Power

44.         One of the following take place in periscope (a) Reflection of light (b) Production of light (c) Dispersion of light (d) retraction of light

45.         One of the following is a unit of energy: Joule

46.         What a simple microscope does is to (a) break objects into smaller size (b) reduce the size of the image (c) magnify small objects (d) expand an object

47.         213 in Egyptian number system is

48.         Babylon is currently known as Iraq

49.         The method of multiplication used by the Egyptians is called Successive doubling

50.         The rule of cord used for construction of Indians is called Sylva Sutras

51.         4;12x3;7 is……….

52.         The method of multiplication used by the Indians is called Grating method

53.         Joseph Fourier  discovered the method of least squares at the age…..

54.         The series used by Joseph Fourier is called Fourier Series

55.         2, 523 in Egyptian symbol is……………….

56.         Multiply 9 by 15 using the Egyptian method

57.         64 in attic Greek system is

58.         Joseph Fourier  Worked on the theory of heat conduction in physics.

59.         The sexagesimal system uses Comma for place value in numbers and Gap  for place value in symbols.

60.         2 ¾ in sexagesimal fraction is

61.         The method of division in Egyptian mathematics is called Successive halving

62.         Carl Friedirch Gauss lived between 1777 And 1855

63.         2,30 in sexagesimal number is ………………….. in decimal number

64.         a perfect number is defined as a number that is replicated by the sum of it factors e.g. 6, 28 etc. 

65.         Zero in Indian mathematics is represented by  a dot sign and is called void or Sunya

66.         Developments in modem mathematics took place between 1660s and 1800s

2002/2003 Questions and Answers

1.            Decimal system is base 10 wile sexagesimal system is base 60

2.            Represent the following number in Babylonian symbols i. 83 ii. 3,720

3.            Correct the following Babylonian number to decimal fraction i. 0;45 ii. 3;30,20

4.            Evaluate: 47,45,50;30 + 25, 46; 48

5.            Prove the Pythagoras theorem diagram diagrammatically

6.            Early Babylonians used a method called Divide and average in computing square root of numbers

7.            Name any two geometry of alter in Sylva Sutras work i. Straight line ii. Circles

8.            Name two materials used in the construction of geometry of alters in India Cord and Ropes.

9.            Brahma Gupta and Bashakar are two important mathematicians in India

10.         How do the early Indians construct a circle: they construct a circle using pegs and cords.

11.         Multiply 314 by 26 using Indian grating method of multiplication

12.         Evaluate

13.         Express

14.         What method was used by the Egyptians in (i) Dividing(Successive halving). (ii) multiplying (Successive doubling)

15.         Pythagoras associated mathematics with Philosophy

16.         Mention two contribution of Archimedes (i)Method of finding an approximation (ii) He proved a number of theorems about spirals

17.         Name Plato’s four basic elements of life with colour associated with i. Fire and Tetrahedron ii. Earth and Cube iii. Air and Octahedron  iv. Water and Icosahedrons

18.         Name the Greek number system i. Attic ii. Ionic

19.         Give two examples of perfect numbers i. 6 ii. 28

20.         Carl Friedrich Gauss contributed on the unit of magnetism

21.         Modern mathematics begin to flourish between 1600s and 1700s period

22.         Joseph Fourier worked on Heat conduction  and theory of integration

23.         What are the basic quantities that are associated with the following S.I units (a) Kelvin=Absolute temperature (b) Ampere=Electricity  (c) Second=Time  (d) Kilogram = Mass

24.         The following are associated with light except (a) Refraction (b) Reflection (c) Mass

25.         How does weight vary as you move away from the earth=the force with which the earth attracts a body decreases when the distance of the body from the earth’s centre increases

26.         What is the type of lens used in a microscope =Converging lens

27.         Write milli in figure………

28.         Work is define as Force x Distance

29.         How many plane mirrors are used in a periscope = Two plane mirrors

30.         Which of the following is more accurate in length measurement

(a)  Venier Caliper and (b) Micrometer Screw gauge…….

31.         Heat is a form of Energy

32.         Energy due to position is Potential energy

33.         The unit of power is Watts

34.         Mass is define as Quantity of matter contained in the body

35.         A device that helps us to do work easily is Machine

36.         The two main branches of science is known as Pure  and Applied Science

37.         The practical application of science is known as Applied Science

38.         Scientific facts are usually based on Observation  

39.         An experiment can be defined as The testing of the validity of scientific guess

40.         Itemise the basic stages of a scientific experiment i. Aim of experiment ii. Method or procedure iii. Observation/results iv. Conclusion v. discussion.

41.         A theory can be defined as A set of scientific assumptions consistent with one another and supported by evidence but not fully proved

42.         A good theory usually explains Predictive values and also forecast certain result

43.         Man is scientifically called Homo-Sapiens

44.         Homo –Erectus gave rise to Perking man in China and Jara man In Indonesia

45.         The first known burials were done by Neanderthal Man

46.         The preliterate period is known as Stone Age and is divided into Paleolithic or old stone age and Neolithic or New Stone age

47.         List four tools used during the new stone age i. Boats, ii. Rafts, iii. Pottery and iv. Cloth weaving

48.         The first hominid known to use fire and tools is called Modern Man

49.         Itemise the basic stages of scientific methodology i. Observation ii. Problem definition iii. Hypothesis iv. Experimentation v. Theory formulation vi. Laws

50.         Scientific experiment usually have a basis for the comparison of the variables called Hypothesis

51.         Name three gaseous pollutant in the air (i)Carbon Monoxide (CO)  (ii) Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂) (iii) Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)

52.         Give the chemical equations showing the process photosynthesis CO₂ + H₂O + H₂CO₃

53.         State two harmful effects of ultraviolet Radiation Causes caner of the skin and Ozone Layer depletion  

54.         What do you understand by the term Mutagen: Mutagens are chemical or radiation which damage or alter the genetic materials in cells.

55.         Give any two harmful effects of Radio Isotope (i) it can cause direct changes in organic molecules which can results to mutation of cells (ii) it is capable of creating ions that can cause damage to cells.

56.         What is an element? An element is a substance that cannot be broken up into more simpler substance by any known chemical process. Give the symbols for silver and gold The symbol Ag is for silver and Au is for gold

57.         Mention any two environmental effects of toxic chemicals. i. Soil contamination ii. Habitat destruction

58.         The formation of ground Ozone Layer is called Smog

59.         The time taken for half of the available deposit to be used up is called Depletion of half life

60.         What is crude oil? Crude oil is the mixture of different chemical substances with hydrocarbon as it major constituent and oxygen.  Nitrogen and sulphur as minor constituent

61.         The ceiling tendency of the atmosphere is regarded as Ozone Layer

62.         What is the principle behind distillation? The principle behind distillation is the separation of the impurities from the crude oil using difference in their boiling points.

63.         2,2,4 – trimethly pentane is an example of…Branched chain hydrocarbon

2003/2004

1. The fabrication of tools is often regarded as a sign of the Achievement of human status

2. The manufacture and use of tools are already seen in other animals e.g Among Apes who will peel a stick and dig into an ant nest to collect food. And Birds make nest’s with standard techniques

3. Another name for he age of stone is Preliterate Age or the Period before the invention of writing

4. Four tools used during the lower Paleolithic era are i. Bones of large animals ii. Lumber from tress iii. Chunks of stone iv. Hand axe or first matchet

5. Jara and Peking men are scientifically known as Pithecanthorpus and Sinonthropus

6. Early man began to wear clothes in the Upper Paleolithic culture

7. Metals used in the Neolithic culture were found in the pure state as Nuggests

8.    All Scientific experiments must have a Logical Progression in the reporting or writing up of experiment

9. The function of experiments is to test The validity of scientific guess

10. Define a theory A theory is the scientific assumptions consistent with one another and supported by evidence but not fully proved.

11. Two conditions for accepting an hypothesis are i. When they are in agreement with existing well-confirmed laws and hypotheses ii. when they can explain the body of facts in question   

12. A good theory should have the following properties It should have predictive value And  it should be consistent and supported with evidence

13. The first fossil was discovered in the year 1925

14. The australopithecine had the following ape-like characteristics The size and complexity of the brian and the skull were ape-like

15. Scientifically the australopithecines apes are called Pre-homo hominids

16. The Homo – Sapiens and the prosinians belong to the order primates

17. Three differences between Neanderthal men and modern man are The Neanderthal man, unlike modern man’s face was narrow & long, they were short, stocky and powerful people with large heavy-boned heads and their fore head was retreating and their brains low

18. The most distinctive characteristic of modern man is the Brain  

19. The early primate adaptations to arboreal life are Apposable thumb i.e Grapping hands, stereoscopic Vision and upright posture.

20. The efficiency of petrol can be described by The composition of octane number

21. The method of converting large hydrocarbons to smaller ones is Cracking

22. The factors in reducing resources depletion include Recycling, Substitution and Technological inventions

23. Acid rain is caused by Sulphur dioxides pollution

24. Neurotoxins are Metabolic poisons that specially attack the nerves

25. Gamma rays are sometimes used in Eradicating Cancerous growth

26. An accident at a nuclear power station could cause Thousands of immediate deaths, tens of thousand of Cancer death and genetic abnormalities and damage to property and environment

27.  The degree of stability of radioactive element is given by its Half-Life

28. Mention 3 uses of radioactive isotope Radioactiveisotope can be used to i. eradicate cancerous growth (Radioactive Cobalt), ii. For the treatment of leukaemia and thyroid disease, iii. For the rapid detection of leakages in water tanks

29. mention any 3 economic/environmental risk of Hazardous wastes i. Soil Contamination, ii. Habitant Distinction and iii. Human health

30. How are gases stored Gases are stored in cylinders and these are strapped to the desk or wall a capped if not used and also removed from any source of heat.

31. Differentiate between toxins and carcinogens

32. Mention three green house gases i. Water vapour, ii. Methane, iii. Chlollouro-carbons (CFG)

33.  A common impurity in petrol is  Sulphur,  And is removed by the process of desulphurization

34. The number system used in Babylon is called  Sexagesimal number system

35. 172 in Babylon system is ……………

36. 3.35in decimal system is 3 x 60¹ + 35 x 60⁰ = 180 + 35 = 215

37. Evaluate 4:12 x 3:7…………………..

38. The area of Mathematics in which Babylonians specializes is… Algebra

39. Two important India Mathematics are Brahma Gupta  And Bhaskara

40. The method of multiplication used by Indians is called Grating method

41. The rule used in geometry in Indian was attached to Sylvasutras

42. Four in Indian numerical is Cords and Pegs

43. Sulvasutras is the original name for ……………….

44. Sixty-five written in Egyptian numeral is Rules of the chord

45. Pictorial characters written  on papyrus in Egypt are called Hieroglyphics

46. Egyptians perform multiplication by method of successive doubling

47. Successive halfing in Egypt is used for division

48. 25+14 evaluated in Egyptian symbol is ………………….

49. One of the greatest mathematicians in Greece was Pythagoras of Samos

50. 6, 28 and 10 are perfect numbers except 10

51. The two number systems used in Greece are Attic Greek  and Ionic Greek

52. 128 written in Attic Greece is ………………

53. Pythagora Discovered relationship between numbers and music

54. Developments in modern mathematics took place between…1660s and 1700s

55. Isaac Newton lived between 1942-1727. and formulated the laws of  Gravitation, And Motion

56. The method of lease squares was invented by Carl Friedrich Gauss At the age of 18

57. the theory of heat conduction in physics was invented by Joseph Fourier

58. Fourier Series is the name of the trigonometric series used by Joseph Fourier

59. Work on the theory of number was done by Carl Friedrich Gauss

60. Carl Friedrich Gauss lived between 1977 and 1855

61. in the sexagesimal system Semi-colon and commas are used in place of decimal points

62. S.I. means = System International

63. Which of the following statements are correct? a. There are three fundamental physical quantities b. There are six basic physical quantities c. There are five basic physical quantities d.  There are four fundamental physical quantities.

64. Which of the following does not belong to the family i. Length ii. Time iii. Temperature iv. Mass,

65. The distance between two physical points is a. Weight b. Distance c. Length d. time

66. Which of the following instruments is the least accurate a. Ruler b. Venire Caliper c. Micrometer Screw Gauge

67. What is mass?  Mass is the quantity of matter that constitute the body

68. What is time?  Time is the duration of 192631770 periods of a specified radiation from an atom of cesim (-133)

69. the Newton is the unit of………… a.  substance b. electricity c. weight d. mass

70.  at what angel are the two plane mirrors in a periscope arranged a.400 b. 450 c.500 d 550

71.  Which of the following is correct? a. the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incident all lie on different plane. b. The angel of incidence is equal to the angle of refraction c. the angel of incidence is equal to angle of reflection d. the angle of energy is equal to the reflected ray

72. What is a microscope?  A microscope is a magnifying glass used in the examination of micro-organisms.

73. Energy from the sun is known as = Solar energy

74. Define work and state its unit.  Work is the application of force moved in a distance and the unit of work is Joule (J)

75. What do you understand by potential energy? Potential energy simply means energy, due to position.

76. List the seven basic quantities and their S.I Units 1. Length-Metre (m), 2. Mass-kilogram (kg), 3. Time-second(s), 4. Electric Current – Ampere (A), 5. Absolute Temperature – Kelvin K (or Not K), 6. Luminous Intensisty Candela Cd, 7. Amount of substance mole Mol.

2006/2007

1.            The two form of science are: pure and applied science

2.            The five stages of scientific methods are: i. observation, ii. Problem definition, iii. Postulation of Hypothesis, iv. Experimentation, v. formulation of theory

3.            What is a scientific fact? Facts are observations obtained directly or indirectly by the senses

4.            The first group of fossils were discovered in  1925 And are called Australopithecines

5.            Three similarities between the Neandethal man and the modern man are: i. Intelligence, ii. Total brain size, iii. Religion and rituals

6.            The fossil of Neanderthal man was discovered in the valley of  Dusseldorf in the year 1956

7.            The modern man’s most distinctively human characteristic is The Brain

8.            Mention tools of lower Paleolithic Period that were taken from nature i. Bones of large animals , ii. Lumber from trees, iii. Chunks of stones

9.            The Stone Age is sometimes called the Preliterate Age it came to an end in 5000 BC and covered at least 95% Of man’s existence and came to an end about 5000 BC

10.         What are the number systems used in Greece? Attic and Ionic

11.         Evaluate the following sexagesimal arithmetic

12.         Use sexagesimal number symbols to represent 135 and 597

13.         Represent 5, 7 and 70 using Brahma’s number system

14.         In early Indian numerals zero was called sunya  or void

15.         pegs And cords are used in geometry of altars for constructing geometrical figures

16.         Evaluate 1035 x 509 using Indian grating method

17.         List the three theories credited to Pythagoras i. A sum of even numbers is even, ii. Odd numbers less odd number is even, iii. In any right angle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the square on the side

18.         Earliest Egyptian writing in pictorial character is called  Hieroglyphics And written on……..

19.         Mention three favourite problems associated to Archimedes? i. Ratio of the volumes of three solids , ii. Methods of finding the approximation of ; the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, iii. He proved a number of theorems about spirals

20.         Modern mathematics began to flourish between 1660s And 1700s

21.         Isaac Newton Who lived between 1642 and 1727 formulated the law of gravity given by F=ma

22.         Greeks associated mathematics with Philosophy

23.         Carl Friedrich Gauss invented the theory of numbers at the age of 21

24.         Prof. Chikobi  and Prof. Ezeilo are great Nigerians who worked on differential equations

25.         List the three constituents of an atom and state their respective charges

Constituents                      Charge

i. Proton                     +ve

ii. Electron                           -ve

iii. Neutron                          nil

26.         The three ways in which the life of a resource can be prolonged are 1.  Recycling        2. Substitution        3 Technological Inventions

27.         List three green house gases and state the adverse effects of these gases on the universe. i. Water Vapour, ii. Chlollouro-carbons(CFCs) iii.Carbon-dioxide.   The presence of carbon dioxide above the required level leads to global warning

28.         list the first four (4) major products obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil and state the range of their carbon atom i. Natural gases C₁-C₄, ii. Gasoline petrol C₁-C₁₀, iii. Kerosene C₁₀-C₁₄, iv. Diesel oil C₁₄-C₁₈

29.         The efficiency of petrol as fuel can be described by the term Octane number

30.         Differentiate between toxins and carcinogens While Toxins are poisonous chemicals that react with certain cellular components to kill the cells and are harmful even in dilute concentration, Carcinogens are substances that causes cancer or out of control cell growth that result to malignant tumors

31.         State three uses of radioactive isotopes i. Curative uses, ii. Industrial uses, iii. Scientific uses

32.         Potassium cyanide is not stored near a strong acid because it will lead to the production of Toxic gas Which is highly inflammable

33.         List five (5) economic/environmental risks of hazardous wastes i. Ground water/water suppliers, ii. Soil contamination, iii. Habitat destruction, iv. Human health, v. Fire explosion and property damage

34.         Acid rain is produce when  Sulphur trioxide dissolves in rain water to form sulphuric acid i.e SO₃ + H₂O … H₂SO₄

35.         The term S.I unit stand for System International

36.         Which physical quantity is not basic among the following;

(a) Length (b) Amount of substance (c) Acceleration (d) Electric current (e) Mass

37.         The S.I. unit for amount of substance is Moi

38.         in measuring the length of a wire, a student recoded 7.55cm which equipment did the student use? Vanier Callipers

39.         Which equipment give reading of the type 5.123cm? Micrometer Screw Gauge

40.         Weight of a body is The force with which the earth attracts the body

41.         if force is the product of mass and acceleration and one of its units is Newton; what is its S.I units?

42.         Power is the same as Work done/time

43.         The work done by an object that moves around a radius of 10m and eventually returns to its original position after 60 minutes is……

44.         The formula for kinetic energy is  Ke = ½ Mv²

SYMBOLS, ELEMENTS AND FORMULAE OF SOME COMPOUNDS, MIXTURE

An atom is the smallest particles of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction.

Substances consist of matter.

Matter is anything that has weight and occupies space such as water, air, wood, plants and animals around us.

An element is a substance which cannot be split into simpler units by an ordinary chemical process.

Symbols of element are a simple system of representing elements.  

Atomic No.	Element	Symbol	Atomic No	Element	Symbol
1.	Hydrogen	H	11	Sodium (Natrium)	Na
2.	Helium	He	12.	Magnesium	Mg
3.	Lithium	Li	13.	Aluminium	Al.
4.	Beryullium	Be	14.	Silicon	Si
5.	Boron	B	15.	Phophorus	P
6.	Carbon	C	16.	Sulphur	S
7.	Nitrogen	N	17.	Chlorine	CI
8.	Oxygen	O	18.	Argon	Ar
9.	Fluorine	F	19.	Potassium (Kalium)	K
10.	Neon	Ne	20.	Calcium	Ca

Element                 Latin  Name                    Symbol

Sodium                  Ferrum                                      Fe

Copper                  Cuprum                           Cu

Tin                        Stannum                          Sn

Silver                     Argentum                        Ag

Gold                      Aurum                                      Au

A compound is a substance which contains tow or more elements chemical combined together.

Compound, formula and their component elements

Compound             Component Elements                 Formula

Water                    Hydrogen, Oxygen                     H₂0

Sand                      Silicon, oxygen                          Si02

Limestone             Calcium, Carbon, oxygen           CaC03

Common Salt                   Sadium, chorine                        NaC1

Glucose                 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen                   C₆H₁₂0₆

         

                            

A mixture: contains two or more constituents which can easily be separated by physical methods.

Mixture:                Constituents

Air            Moisture, dust, oxygen, carbon (iv) oxide, nitrogen, rareg

Soil           Sand, clay, humus, water, air, mineral salts

Milk         Water, sugar, fat, proteins, mineral salts, vitamins

Crude oil  Petrol, heavy oil, gas oil, kerosene, naptha, bitumen, gas

Brass        Copper, zinc

Mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous while compound is always homogenous.

RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES

A  resource is any useful information, material or service.  Natural resources are goods and services supplied by our environment such as human resources like wisdom, experience and skill.

Classification of Natural Resources

1.            Renewable resources:  Are infinite and self renewing.  They include sun, agricultural products and other biological organisms.

2.            Non-renewable or exhaustible resources:  Are most earth’s geological endowments e.g mineral and non-mineral resources, fossil fuels etc.  Non-renewal resources can be grouped into:

i.             Inorganic-minerals: e.g. limestone, uranium, tinores and iron ores

ii.           Fossil fuels: e.g. coal and crude oil deposits.  Fossil fuels are found from the dead plant and animal matter.

Inventory of resources in Nigeria

Resource Crude Oil Coal Limestone/Dolomite Iron Ore Tin Ore Gold

Location Port Harcourt, Warri, Edo etc Enugu Nkalagu, Gboko, Ewekoro, Sokoto Ajaokuta Jos Ilesah

Uses Making gasoline, Kerosene Locomotive engines, fuel, cooking. Cement, glass Steel, heavy machinery Canning Jewellery, monetary standards

Resource depletions: Is a gradual use-up of available deposits of a non-renewable resource.

Recycling: is the processing of white products for scare of valuable materials. It is a very useful method of prolonging the life of a non – renewable resource.

Factors that help prolong the life of a resource;

1.            Technological invention

2.            Substitution

3.            Recycling

Crude Petroleum

The chief source of hydrocarbons is crude oil or petroleum.  Crude Petroleum is an evil smelling viscous liquid.  It is a mixture of natural gas and crude oil. It is the largest source of organic compounds and is either used as a fuel or for the synthesis of organic chemicals. 

Refining and fractional distillation

Refining is the preparation of useful products such as gasoline (Petrol), Kerosene, diesel oil and lubricating oil from petroleum.  It includes separation, purification and conversation to other useful chemicals. The initial process of refining involves the separation of the crude oil from the oil field from impurities and pumped through pipelines to the refinery.  Fractional distillation is used to separate the crude oil into fractions each of which boils within a certain temperature range.

Cracking is used to obtain petrol from the heavier, or less volatile, fractions of curde oil.  The grade of petrol is measured on an octane number scale. Cracking is a method of converting large hydrocarbon molecules to smaller ones.

Methods of cracking

1.            Catalytic cracking occur at about 500⁰C with an atmospheric pressure using silicon oxides and Aluminium as catalyst.

2.            Thermal cracking is carried out at a high temperature of up to 700⁰C and a pressure of about 30 atmospheres. 

C₁₆H₃₄                 C₈H₁₈ + C₈H₁₆

Products from Distillation of Petroleum

Fraction	Carbon range	Boiling range
Natural gas	C1-C4	<400C
Gasoline Petrol	C4-C10	40-1750C
Kerosene	C10-C14	175 – 2750C
Diesel Oil	C14-C18	>2750C
Lubricating Oil, Waxes	>C18
Asphalt, bitumen	>C40

Use of Petroleum fractions

1.            Natural gas: Mainly used as fuels for homes and industries and for the manufacture of products like hydrogen, carbon (iv) sulphide, ethyne: used as fuel in motor – vehicles

2.            Gasoline (petrol): used as a solvent for grease, stains and paints

3.            Kerosene: It is fairly volatile liquid and is used as a fuel for lighting and heating and for driving tractors jet engines.  It also a good solvent for grease paints.

4.            Diesel Oil:  Used in internal combustion engines of the diesel types

5.            Lubricating oil:  Used as a lubricant and for making petroleum jelly.

6.            Paraffin wax: Used in making candles

7.            Bitumen: Used for surfacing roads and air fields

Air and Pollution

Pollution is the discharge of waste harmful substances into the atmosphere. Pollutants are substances that alter physical environment and causes pollution. Air is a mixture of gases, composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen with small amounts of carbon (iv) oxide, noble gases and water vapour.

Photosynthesis:  Is a process whereby green plants manufacture carbohydrates (glucose) from atmospheric carbon (iv) oxide and water from the soil, in the presence of sunlight which provides the necessary energy reaction.

Casus of Air Pollution

The main cause of air pollution is the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, petrol, gasoline and gases.

Pollutants

1.            Particulate matter (tiny solids)

2.            Oxides of carbon

3.            Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen

4.            Gaseous hydrocarbons and chlorofluoro-carbons

5.            Hydrocarbons

Acid Rain, Photochemical Smog and Carbon –Monoxide

Acid rain arise from sulphur dioxide pollution.  Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a pungent smell.  It is fairly poisonous and normally used for fumigation.  Sulphur occurs in coal and in minerals such as pyrites and petroleum.  S0₂ is during the following processes;

1.            Combustion of sulphur in air

S+0₂                       S0₂

2.            The smelting of ores

4Fes₂ + 110₂                        2Fe₂0₃ + 8 S0₂

Equation that shows how acid rain occur;

S0₂+½)0₂                 S0₃

The sulphur trioxide dissolves in rain water from sulphuric acid. 

S0₃+H₂0                 H₂S0₄

Effect of Acid Rain

1.            Causes corrosion of metals

2.            Attack textile materials

3.            Increase the acidity of the soil

4.            Irritates the respiratory tract causing a diseases condition known as bronchoconstriction through aerosol

Effect of Sulphur dioxide is reduce by:

(i)           Converting the sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide and the sulphuric acid which is removed as sulphate.

(ii)         Use of certain chemicals to absorb the gas like calcium oxide, and sodium sulphate. S0₂+Ca0                   CaS0₃ (Calcium Sulphate)

(iii)       Elimination of its source

NB: Nigeria’s crude oil is rated very high due to its low content of sulphur. 

Smog; is any visible blanked of atmospheric pollution caused by the coincidence of man produced smoke with naturally occurring weather.  It is caused by the action of ultraviolet light on nitrogenous gases in air that also contains hydrocarbon molecules.

Control of Air Pollution.

1. Strict Laws should be passed to make factories and users of motor vehicles keep air pollution down by suing anti-pollution devices and taking anti-pollution measures.

2. Machinery should be improved so that more efficient fuel combustion occurs.

3. People should be educated to make them aware of the causes and dangers of pollution.

Greenhouse Effect

This is the global warming of the planet.  Also, it is an increase in the level of atmospheric carbon (iv) oxide that result in a greater retention of infra…. Ray.  Its gases are:  water vapour, methane and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). 

Ozone Layer

It is found in the stratosphere.  It acts as a shield preventing too much ultra-violent light from reaching the earth’s surface.  A diminishing Ozone layer means an increase in the level of ultra-violet radiation that reaches earth.  This poses a danger to human health and may cause an increase cataracts, skin cancer and sunburns.

Chemical Hazards

Toxic substances are seen in water, soil, air and food

Classification of Chemical Agents

1.            Hazardous chemicals:  are the dangerous chemicals and they include: flammable, explosives, irritants, sensitizes, acids and caustics.

2.            Toxic chemicals; are poisonous chemicals.  They react with special cellular components to kill cells.

Types of Hazardous and Toxic Chemicals

1.            Irritants: are the corrosives which damage biological tissues on contract. E.g strong acids (sulphuric acid), caustic (Sodium hydroxide).  They only not damage cells directly but also make them susceptible to infections and they trigger transformations that lead to a cancerous state.

2.            Respiratory Tibrotic Agents:  They are special class of irritants.  They are know to damage the lungs.  E.g Silica dust causes silicosis, coal dust know for the black icing disease and asbestos fibres which cause asbestosis.

3.            Asphyxiants: They exclude oxygen or actively interfere with oxygen uptake and distribution.  Nitrogen and its oxides, methane, carbondioxide are passive asphyxiates.

4.            Allergens: Are substances that activate the immune system.  Antigens are recognised as foreign bodies by white blood cells and therefore stimulate the production of specific antibodies formation in the body and are able to react with that antibody. An antibody is a protein endowed with the capacity to recognise a substance foreign to the organism it has invaded.

5.            Neurotoxins: Are a special class of metabolic poisons that specifically attach the nerve cells.  The nervous system helps in regulating the body activities. E.g Anaesthetics (chloroform), chlorinated hydrocarbon (DDT, dieldrin, aldrine) and heavy metals (lead, mercury) are known to disrupt the ion transport across cell membranes necessary for nerve action.  Another example of neurotoxins is organophosphates.

6.            Mutagens: are chemicals which damage or alter genetic material (DNA) in cells.  Its responsible for birth defects i.e damage that occurs during embryonic or foetal growth.

7.            Teratogen: chemical or other factors that will specifically cause abnormalities during embryonic growth and development.  E.g thalidomide is a widely used sedative known to cause abnormal foetal development in pregnant women.

8.            Carcinogens: are substances that cause cancer.  E.g toxaphen, Cadmium, Asbestos, Arsenic, Adirin/Dioldrim etc.

Structure of the Atom

Atom is made up of three main sub-particles-electrons, protons and neutrons having the properties as shown:

Particle	Mass	Charge
Electron	1/1 840 unit	Negative
Proton	1 unit	Positive
Neutron	1 unit	No charge

Atom consist of a positively charge core called nucleus, where most of the mass of the atom is contained, and electrons which move round the nucleus.  The nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons the atomic number of an element is the number of protons in one atom of an element.  The mass number of an element is the sum of protons and neutrons in its atom.

Radioactivity

In 1896, Henry Becquerel observed that a crystal of a uranium salt spontaneously emitted radiation. 

Radioactivity is the spontaneously emission of radiation by an element.

Types of Radiation

1.            Alpha-rays (a-rays)

Properties of Alpha-rays

i.             Are positively charged nuclei of helium

ii.           They have low penetrating power and can easily be absorbed by the thin paper

iii.         They are deflected to the negative plate of any electric field

iv.          They have a mass of 4 units

v.            They have atomic number of 2 units

2.            Beta-rays (β-rays)

Properties

i.             Are fast moving of electrons

ii.           They have weak ionizing power thana-particles

iii.         They are negatively charge

iv.          They are absorbed by a metal paper

v.            They are deflected to the positive plate of an electric field

3.            Gamma rays

Properties

i.             They are electromagnetic waves

ii.           They are most penetrating power

iii.         They have live charge

iv.          Not deflected

Half-life radioactive element: is defined as the time taken for half the atoms initially present in the radioactive element to decay.  Also, it is the time required for its radioactively to fall to half of its observed value at any given instant.  Half-life of radioactive element may be calculated logically or by use of formula.

Scientific application & Uses of Radioactive Isotopes

1.            Cobalt-60 are used in industry for studying defects in metals.

2.            Gamma rays are useful in medicine for the treatment of cancer

3.            Gamma-rays is used sterilising materials

4.            Sources of Beta-rays are used for measuring the thickness of plastic film during manufacture.

5.            Much can also be learnt about the working of plants and animals by using radioactive isotopes as tracers.

6.            Archaeologist make use of the decay of naturally radioactive substances to determine the age of ancient materials such as wood and rocks; “Process known to be radioactive dating”

7.            Phosphorus – 32 is used in the treatment of leukaemia

8.            Raido-iodine used for treating thyroid disease

9.            Radio-sodium is used for rapid detection of leaks in water mains.

Effect of Radiation

i.             It causes mutation of cells

ii.           It creates loss that bring about deterious changes in cell.

Disposal of Radioactive waste

i.             By burying the radioactive waste; USA and great Britain (GB) are examples of countries that does this

ii.           By dumping in the ocean; Japan, France, Belgium are examples of country that does this.

Economic & Environmental Risks of Hazardous Waste Health Hazards:

Radioactive substance can be dangerous to the body if one is exposed to radiation for a long time.  Genetic changes (mutations) can take place causing cancer or undesirable hereditary effects.  Workers in radiological laboratories are advised to guard against gamma radiation and thick blocks of lead, iron or concrete.

Effects of the use of Chemicals in the Environment

1.            Soil contamination

2.            Habitat destruction

3.            Deteriation of human health

4.            Fires, explosion and property damage

5.            Contamination of water supplies

Measurement in Science

Measurement is the process by which we measure a physical quantity with the unit chosen to express that quantity. S.I. It means system International units.

BASIC UNITS: ARE; electric current, absolute temperature, luminous intensity, amount of substance.

Fundamental units are: Length, mass and time.

Basic units

Physical Quantity	S.I Units	Symbol
Length	Metre	M
Mass	Kilogram	Kg
Time	Second	S
Electric Current	Ampere	A
Absolute Temperature	Kelvin	K
Lumirous intensity	Candela	Cd
Amount of substance	Mole	Mol

Prefix to units:  are the symbols or notions that appears before the unit of that measurement.

Prefix	Amount	Symbol
Deci	10-1 or 1/10	D d
Centi	10-2 or 1/100	C c
Milli	10-3 or 1/1000	M m
Micro	10-6	N n
Nano	10-9	N
Pico	10-2	P
Deca	10	D
Hecto	102	H
Kilo	103	K
Mega	10	M
Giga	109	G

Some Conversion

10cm                     1dcm/                                       1dg

10dcm                             1m/10dg                          1g

100m                     1km/100g                        1kg             

Worked Examples

1.            Convert 5g to kilogramme and

2.            Convert 5kg to grame

1.  1000g                     1kg

     :.5g                       5x1=0.0005kg

                                  1000

2.  1kg                        1000g

     5kg                        5x1000 = 0.0005kg

                                       1

Measurement of Length

It is a known fact that the S.I unit of length is in metre.  As such, there are three main instrument being used to measure length; they are;

(i)           Metre rule: measures to the nearest length of a centimetre.  It measures up to one decimal place e.g. 3.10cm, 2.20cm, 2.200cm etc.

(ii)         Vernier callipers; measures the diameter of a cylindrical object.  Measures to the nearest length of a millimetre.  It measures up to 2 decimal place e.g. 3.42cm, 5.48cm etc.

(iii)       Micrometre screw gauge:  It measures the diameter of a thing wire.  Measures up to 3 decimal place e.g 3.423cm, 5.481cm etc.

Mass and Weight

Mass: is the quantity of matter that constitutes the body.  It measure in kilogramme.

Weight: is the force with which the earth attract the body.  It varies from place to place on the earth.  It is measure in Newton.

The chemical balance is a typical mass measuring equipment while spring balance applicable to weight.

Time: is measures by a click, a device which has some repetitive or periodic property and which has been calibrated by comparison with a standard measures in second.

Properties of clock

1.            The rotation of the earth on its axis

2.            The oscillation of the pendulum and balance wheels

3.            The oscillation of a nitrogen atom within an ammonia molecule

Physic Applications

Force: is defined as any agent that changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line of a body.  Also, it is the product of mass and acceleration. Measures in Newton Mathematically;  

Force=Mass X Acceleration.

E.g:  a body of mass 2kg undergoes a constant horizontal acceleration of 5m/S2.  Calculate the force acting on the body.

Solution:

Force = mass X acceleration

Force = 2 x 5 = 10N

Work, Energy & Power

Work is said to be done whenever a force moves a body through a certain distance in the direction of force, and is equal to the product of the force and the distance moved.  It is measure in Joule (J).

Mathematically: W=Force X distance.

e.g: A body is pulled along a horizontal plane by a constant force of 10N applied parallel to the plane.  Calculate the work done in moving the body a distance of 20m.

Solution

W=10x 20=200J

Energy: Can be defined as the capacity to perform work, the SI unit of energy is the joule, J.

Forms of Energy

(1)                              Kinetic energy: Such as the energy of a moving car

(2)                              Chemical energy: such as the energy in our food which makes us grow

(3)                              Heat energy: such as the energy developed in a steam engine

(4)                              Electrical energy: such as the energy travelling through wires

(5)                              Light energy enables us to see

(6)                              Sound energy: such as that from bud speakers

(7)                              Nuclear energy: energy from the nucleus of the atom 

Kinetic & Potential Energy:

They are the two kind of mechanical energy.

Kinetic Energy; is the energy a body possesses because it is in motion while, potential energy is the energy a body possesses because of its position.

K.E= ½ MV², P.E = Mgh.

M=mass, V=Velocity, g=acceleration due to gravity

H=height

e.g (1) a body of mass 100 kg is released from a height of 200m.  with what energy does the body strike the ground (take g=10m/S²)

P.E=mgh=100 x 10 200 = 200,000 J

(2)A body of mass 30 kg is running with a speed of 4m/s. What is kinetic energy.

Solution

K.E = ½  MV² =   X 300 X 4²

= ½ X 300 X 16  = 2400J

Power

Is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of energy.

Power =  work done or energy expended

                     Time taken

P=w  = fxd

     t       t

Power = force x velocity

Power is measures in watt (w)

e.g calculate the power of a pump which lifts 500kg of water through a vertical height of 4m in 5 second (g=10m/S²)

Solution

Power = work done  =      500 x 10 x 4 = 4000N

              Time                     5

Optical Instruments

1.        Simple microscope: when an object is placed between the principal focus and the optical centre of a converging lens, an enlarged, erect but virtual image is formed.  It is used for reading small print and for studying biological specimens.  It uses a single lens.

2.        Compound microscope: It is a combination of two converting lenses, the objective lens and the eye-piece.

3.         Astronomical telescope: Is an instrument used for viewing distant objects, such as stars and  other planets.

INVENTION & DEVELOPMENT

Before the invention of writing

Stone Age: is the period of history.  It’s otherwise known preliterate culture.

Metals Age: Is the period of history based upon writing records Stone Age and metals age are the two main division of the entire span of human history.

The Stone Age had 95% of man’s existence until 500BC.  It’s subdivided into:

i.             Palaeolithic (old stone age)

ii.           Neolithic (New Stone age)

The Evolutionary Sequence of Tool-Making

Archaeologist is responsible for tracing the gradual evolution of tool-making

(a)         The Lower Palaeolithic Man’s Tools

It’s one of the division of Palaeolithic man’s tools which covered the period of 1,750BC – 10,000BC.  It has about 75% of the entire stone age.

Species of man inhabited the Earth are;

i.             Zinjanthropusboisei  (is the oldest). Its skeletal remains were found in great rift valley of Tanganyika in central Africa.   

ii.           Jara man (scientific name is pithecanthropus erectus)

iii.         Peeking man

(b)         The Upper Palaeolithic Man’s Tools

This period lasted for only 200 centuries i.e 30,000 BC – 10,000 BC.  It’s biologically related to modern man.  It contains some complicated tools such as bone needle, Fishhook harpoon, dart thrower and bow and arrow. 

Neolithic Culture:  Otherwise known as New Stone Age.  It is the last Stage of Preliterate culture.

SCIENCE METHODOLOGY AND HYPOTHESIS

Science is the systematized human activity that responds to man’s curiosity that also has varied human motivations.

Forms of Science

i.             Pure

ii.           Applied sciences

Pure Science: Promotes our understanding of how the universe and its parts operates.

Applied Science: Puts the results of basic research to practical uses.

Scientific Methodology Stages

(i)           Observation

(ii)         Problem definition 

(iii)       Hypothesis (which is quite unscientific procedure of guessing)

(iv)        Experimentation: Test the validity of scientific guesses

(v)          Theory: is a set of scientific assumptions consistent with one another and supported by evidence but not fully proved.

Facts and Experiments

Facts are based on observations obtained directly or indirectly by the senses.  Data is the facts that relate to a particular problem.

Experiment Reports Format

i.             Aim of experiment

ii.           Method/Procedure

iii.         Conclusion

iv.          Discussion

Human Origin

Man is an animal and is being classified as Homo Sapiens in the order primates with the prosinians, monkeys and apes.  Primates are basically four-footed in locomotion and posture.

Neanderthal Men

It’s being referred to as Homo Neanderthalensis, it’s different from modern man due to the following properties:

i.             They are short

ii.           They are stocky powerful people with large heavy-bone heads

iii.         It’s forehead was recreating and the brain low

Taxonomic Groups

i.             Jara and Peking

ii.           Neanderthal (Homo Neanderthalensis)

iii.         Homo Sapiens

Difference between Australopithecine and modern men

i.             The brain of modern man is more complex

ii.           Modern man has erect posture while australopithecine posture does not

iii.         Modern man makes special tools that the australopithecine cannot make

Features of Jara Men

They are represented by a group of skulls, jaws.

NB; man is being classified as a primate due to the under listed basis:

i.             Possession of brain

ii.           Possession of grasping hands

iii.         Possession of binocular stereoscopic vision

iv.          Possession of upright posture