CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Adolescents
experience many problems, including teen pregnancy, alcohol and drug use/abuse
and violence, school failure and eating disorder (Callalian, & Stein 2003).
The extent and seriousness of these problems may cause social scientists,
policy makers and parents to overlook youth who are well functioning: teens
that excel in school, have positive family and peer relationships, and have
minimal participation in behaviors such as stated above. (Demon, 2004; Moore et
al., 2004).
Adolescent
has been described as a phase of life beginning in biology and ending in
society (Peterson, 1988). Indeed, adolescent may be defined as the period
within the life span when most of a person’s biological, cognitive, psychological
and social characteristics are changing from what is typically considered
child-like to what is considered adult-like (Learner and Spainer, 1980). For
adolescents’, this period is a dramatic challenge, one requiring adjustment to
changes in the self, in the family, and in the peer group. In contemporary
society, adolescent experience institutional changes as well. Among young
adolescents, there is a change in school setting, typically involving a
transition from elementary school to either junior high school or middle
school; and in late adolescence there is a transition from high school to the
worlds of work, University or childrearing.
Adolescent
is a time of excitement and of anxiety, of happiness and of troubles, of
discovery and of bewilderment, and of breaks with the past and yet of links
with the future. Adolescence can be a confusing time – for the adolescent
experiencing this phase of life; for the parents who are nurturing the
adolescent during his or her progression through this period; for adults
charged with enhancing the development of youth during this period of life, and
with disturbing, historically unprecedented frequency – for adolescents who
themselves find themselves in the role of parents. When we searched the
literature it became clear that the vast majority of adolescent research
reported on the causes and correlates of problem behaviors (Shagle and Barber,
1995; Small and Luster, 1994; Pick and Palos, 1995).
Most
research on adolescent focuses on specific problem behaviors, whereas few
studies examine the avoidance of multiple forms of risk taking or the
determinants of positive development (Moore and Glei, 1995). Positive youth
development approach helps in enhancing adolescent development, and for helping
youth reach their full potential. This approach recognizes that all adolescents
have strengths and that children and youth will develop in positive ways when
these strengths are aligned with resources for healthy development in the
various settings in which adolescent, live and interact.
Research
indicates that the more exposure that adolescents have to positive resources
and experiences and where synergy between multiple settings can be established
– the more likely it is that they will develop, positively. Therefore, physical
and institutional resources present in the social environment (for example,
family support) are just as essential for promoting positive youth development
as are individual assets (such as skills, talents, self-esteem and resiliency). These resources provide adolescents with
routines and structure, as well as opportunities for learning, recreation, and
engagement with individuals and their communities.
Developmental
scientists have suggested that positive youth development encompasses
psychological, behavioral and social characteristics that reflect competence
confidence, connection, character and caring compassion. A child or adolescent
who develops each of these five features is considered to be thriving.
Moreover, developmental scientists believe that these thriving youth develop a
sixth one, which is contribution to self, family, community, and civil society.
These contributions or competence can be viewed in specific areas, including
social, academic, cognitive, health and vocational. Social competence refers to
interpersonal skills (such as conflict resolution). Cognitive competence refers to cognitive
abilities (e.g. decision making). Academic competence refers to school
performance as shown, in part by school grades, attendance, and test scores.
Health competence involves using nutrition, exercise, and rest to keep oneself
fit. Vocational competence involves work habits and explorations of career
choices. Moreso, these adolescents’ exhibit an internal sense of overall
positive self worth and self-efficacy. They have positive bonds with people and
institutions that are reflected in exchanges between the individual and his or
her peers, family, school, relationship. Well functioning adolescents’ exhibit
respect for societal and cultural norms, possession of standards for correct
behaviors, a sense of right and wrong (morality) and integrity. They also have
a sense of sympathy and empathy for others.
Who
we are is largely defined by the experiences we have had and how we understand
those experiences (McLean, 2007). There is growing evidence in the
psychological literature that the narratives of one’s own personal experience
are critical for identity and well-being. Individuals who are able to create
more coherent and emotionally expressive narratives about stressful events
subsequently show lower levels of depression, and anxiety (Fraittaroh 2000);
adolescents who tell life narratives that are more redemptive, focusing on how
good things emerged from bad, show higher levels of emotional well-being and
higher levels of generativist, connecting in positive ways to the next
generation (Mc Adams 2001).
Importantly,
families that share stories, about parents and grandparents, about triumphs and
failures, provide powerful models for children. Children understand whom they
are in the world not only through their individual experiences but also through
the filters of family stories that provide a sense of identity through
historical time (Fivush 1999). Although this idea resonates in the social
science literature, there is surprisingly little empirical research examining
how knowledge of family stories is related to child outcome.
Several
studies show that self-esteem influences academic performance (Clifford, 1964).
Research has shown that self-esteem is a better predictor of academic success
than measured intelligence (Clifford, 1964). Research aside; common sense
dictates that our thoughts influence our feelings and behaviors. Our behavior
consequently influences our performance. Life is essentially a self-fulfilling
prophecy. Common sense also dictates that a student who has self-doubt and
lacks self-acceptance is unlikely to attain academic excellence.
How
can a student establish challenging goals if he or she lacks a sense of
self-competence or self-efficacy? How can a student concentrate fully on
studies if he or she lacks self-approval? Indeed, research does show that
underachievers are generally less confident and less ambitious (Goldberg,
1960), less self accepting (Shaw and Alves, 1963), and lack sense of personal
worth (Durr and Schmatz, 1964).
Research
also shows that feeling worthless can be depressing (Battle, 1990) and
depression generally inhibits performance. As stated by Mark R. Leary and
Deborah L. Downs (1999 p.112) “People who feel worthy, able and competent are
more likely to achieve their goals than those who feel worthless, impotent and
incompetent’’. Research also shows that academic achievement influences the
level of self-esteem. Successful academic performance enhances self-esteem (Moore,
1996). Similarly, poor academic performance tends to erode students’ level of
self-esteem (Gibby and Gibby 1967).
Furthermore, Locus of control, which is a
personality construct, refers to an individual’s perception of the locus of
events as determined internally by his or her own behaviour vs. fate, Luck or
external circumstances. It is a belief about whether the outcomes of our
actions are contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on
events outside our personal control (external control orientation) (Zimbardo,
1985). In general, it seems to be psychologically healthy to perceive that one
has control over those things, which one is capable of influencing.
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