the Impact of Hayin Gwari Halal Cooperative Multi-purpose Society, Minna, on poverty alleviation.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background to the Study

Cooperation is rooted in the tendency to live together and assist one another. It is a positive action geared towards making life worth living and beneficial to the citizenry. When cooperation becomes firm and strong, it elicits peace, safety and progression (Abba, 2013). It engenders robust consideration for the interests of the members of a given association and consequently emphasizes a great deal on the social wellbeing of virtually all members in cooperation . Cooperation is a phenomenon that denotes any form of working together voluntarily by persons or individuals to achieve common goals . To narrow it down, cooperative refers to the activities of an association of persons with similar social, cultural and economic needs who willingly came together satisfy these needs in solidarity. In other words, it came into existence as a result of reactions against capitalism, competition and injustice that are associated with them. It is purely service-delivery .

Significantly, cooperative members are noted to pull their resources together for the satisfaction of their members’ identified needs. It is therefore, the best way to tackle the perennial economic problem of a developing country like Nigeria where a great percentage of people like below poverty line. This is probably what informed the Federal Government to formulate a policy guideline in 1979 that at least 25% of Nigerians should become members of Cooperative Societies . Okechukwu (2001) stated that the Danish people saw in the cooperative easier way of improving their national economy, especially after the war with Germany and their humiliating defeat which contributed to national poverty. They went into promoting economic interest of their people . The Swedish people embraced cooperation because of the need to also improve the economic interest of their citizens. Everybody was made to participate in one form of chosen economic activity or the other .

The origin of cooperation could be traced to the period of industrial revolution in Great Britain which gave rise to associations like the Chartist Movement, Corn Mill, Banking Societies and several others. Despite the fact that some of these associations failed in their struggles, their coming together left a legacy to be remembered; and it consequently attracted attention in the history book. Government, on its part, made some laws to guide against poverty. A formidable and first successful cooperative society came into existence in 1884. It was known as the Rochadale Equitable Pioneers. It was made up of 28 weavers which included 27 men and a woman. In subsequent years, other associations sprang up all over Europe, particularly in France, Germany, Denmark, etc. The success story of these societies or association, which then flourished, was attributed to the efforts of the Rochadale and others to fashion out rules, regulation and guidelines for cooperatives which were eventually known as the Cooperative Principles. Another interesting aspect of the origin of cooperatives in Europe was the emergence of men of good will, the philanthropists, who took it upon themselves to use their human and material resources as well as their wealth to champion the cause of cooperatives.

The Impact of Employees Performance and Development on the Attainment of Organizational Objectives. (A case study of United Bank for Africa Plc., Abuja)

CHAPTER ONE

1.1  INTRODUCTION

The Manpower of an organization is of paramount importance. It is the heart of the organization existence and in any organization the management and employees must have the potentials, ability and ambition to acquire more knowledge in order to achieve the aims and objectives of the organization and also to increase productivity and continuity of human development. The knowledge could be educational. Professional, intellectual and technical in order to improve on their jobs. Individuals about the most important and basic requirement need this so that they could be employed in any prestigious organization such as the UBA.

The acquisition of this knowledge is through training and development, which is a very crucial issue in any UBA because it helps employees perform their duties more efficiently and they can also face other challenges that they would encounter during their working lives.

The utilization of human resources in any hank is very important, this can he acquired through training and development, the use of the knowledge. Skills, and techniques acquired through this process can he properly utilized and put into practical use in employees working lives, it can also serve as a source of motivation in that their aims and objectives as well as that of UBA are achieved, which in the short or long run would earn them a promotion or increase in salary.

 Training is learning aimed directly at enabling a person or a group to acquire particular areas of competence that can immediately be put to use at work. Education on the other hand is learning aimed at enabling people to acquire more general areas of competence which may or may not be used immediately but which will be needed at some future time. (Gordon McBeath (1974).

With training, the way in which the newly gained competence will be applied is known and planned for in advance, where as in education, the application of what is learnt is largely left to the discretion of those who have been educated. Any education process must therefore include learning to identify when and where to use what has been learned.

Planned experience is training designed in such a way that specific learning objectives can be achieved whilst actually doing the job being learned. It also provides an important bridge between training and education in that through it people can learn how to apply the results of more formal instructions

 "Care should be taken that every man entrusted with a responsible duty is thoroughly trained for its performance and competence. Before the responsibility is cast upon him." According to Sir George Findley 1889. Hence, People need to have been trained to at least the minimum level of competence that their jobs require before they are appointed. 

THE OPPORTUNITIES AND BENEFITS OF ICT AND INTERNET USAGE IN SMES.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE

1.1      BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

            It has been observed that “the pivotal role of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in socio-economic development and poverty reduction cannot be over-emphasised. The establishment of SMEs and their delivery of the mandate of socio-economic development and poverty reduction can be described as very good instrument that empower people and also improve the economy”. Metcalfe, B. (1992)

             Over the years, “technology in business has been changing rapidly as the global environment becomes highly competitive and innovative. The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has become very vital to businesses that intend to remain competitive in the market”. In the words of Cravens (2000), “the drivers of change in today’s world include, deregulation, global excess capacity, global competition, changing customer expectations ICT, demographic shifts and changing work and lifestyles. These changes have led organizations to embark on activities that will provide a source of competitive advantage and embrace the usage of ICT”.  Also, “ICT is often viewed as a necessary ingredient to most businesses in recent times. This view of ICT has led to a rush to implement IT systems by most businesses. The view that there exists a link between improved performances due to implementation of ICT in a business’s operations is a presumed truism, opposing views on which opinion offered is divisive”. To an extent, “it is often a struggle for many scholars and academicians to properly link a firm’s ICT infrastructure to the extent to which it defines firm performance” (Brynjolfsson, 1996). Furthermore, “IT refers to “Information Technology” and as such refers to any investment made by the company in the form of computer and communication technologies and shareable technical platforms and databases (R).To redefine the term in a more discernible way, we can refer to IT as any technology that helps to produce, store, communicate and disseminate information”. According to Loretta (2008), “Information and Communication Technology is changing the economy and traditional business become more dependent on new technologies. Compared with traditional business, new technologies facilitate an increased interactivity, flexibility, cheap business transactions as well as improve interconnection with business partners and customers. Information technology is having a significant impact in sector of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SME), especially where industries are in decline or when unemployment levels are high”.  

AN APPRAISAL OF CRIMINAL PROSECUTION OF OIL COMPANIES UNDER THE HARMFUL WASTE (CRIMINAL PROVISION) ACT LFN 2004

CHAPTER THREE

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

3.0.0 Introduction

In this chapter, efforts will be directed toward the legal framework and under the following headings;

§  The History of Environmental regulations in Nigeria

§  NESREA 2007

§  Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provision) Act LFN 2004

§  Rules of common law and equity on waste

§  International Laws Regulating Harmful Waste

§  Basel Convention on the control of Trans-Boundary Movement of hazardous waste and other disposal 1989

§  Organization of African unity (OAU) Convention 1991

§  Bamako Convention on the Ban of import to Africa and the control of Trans-Boundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Waste within Africa

§  The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985

§  National Framework on Waste Management

§  1999 Constitution (Section 20)

§  Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act (FEPA) 1988

§  The National Environmental Management: Waste Act 59 of 2008

§  Petroleum Act Cap.P10 LFN 2004

§  The Environmental Impact Assessment Act 1992

§  Oil in Navigable Water Act LFN 2004

§  Oil Pipeline Act Cap07 LFN 2004

§  State and Local statue

§  Lagos State Environmental Pollution Control Edict 1991

§  Kano State Environmental Protection and Planning Agency Edicts 1990

§  Anambra State Environmental Sanitation Authority Edicts No15

§  Customary law

3.1.0 The History of Environmental regulations in Nigeria

The development of Nigerian environmental regulations can be divided into two:

1) The pre 1988 era

2) The post 1988 era

The Pre 1988 Era: During the colonial era, Nigeria was not concerned about the protection of the environment; it was not a priority. Accordingly, there was no policy aimed at preserving and protecting it. The tort of nuisance was more prominent because disputes in environmental law were not viewed as public matters warranting state intervention.   The few environmentally related laws that were applicable criminalized activities that could degrade the environment. One of the laws was the Criminal Code Act of 1916, which prohibited water pollution and air pollution. In 1917, the Public Health Act was enacted. Although, somewhat broad in scope, this Act did not contain provisions of relevance to the regulation of land, air and water pollution. At this time, matters relating to the environment were dealt with in a rudimentary manner, from the view point of environmental sanitation.

Following Nigeria’s independence in 1960 and the discovery of oil in commercial quantities, laws dealing with the environment obviously became grossly inadequate. This was owing to the fact that most of the provisions on environmental protection were scattered throughout different laws, resulting in ad-hoc response to different needs in different situations. During the decade following independence, the Government criminalized polluting activities, particularly those relating to the discharge of oil in navigable waters and environmental degradation as a result of petroleum activities.

The 1970s saw the further development of the Nigeria’s environmental regime in response to the individual growth associated with the oil boom. River basin authorities⁶⁴ were created and environmental units were established in some government ministries. The laws were, however, typically “knee-jerk” responses to emergency situations.

 

64. River Basin Development Authority Act, 1987.

Assignment Topic: Question: In the case of Citec Inter Estates Ltd V Edimicosa Inter Inc. & Associates unreported SC 163/2006 decided on 9th June, 2017, the apex court finally settled on the meaning of section 60 of CAMA. So answer the following questions:

INTRODUCTION

Edicomisa International Inc. & Associates, registered under the laws of the United States of America as a corporate entity, was engaged by the Appellant as its “Architects and Engineers-Consultants and Sole-Contractor to do for the Appellant and the Federal Government of Nigeria, the conceptualisation, design, infrastructure and construction of Five Thousand Housing Units at Nbora District in Abuja”.

Part of the business was for the commitment of the Respondent to build two factories for the production of Simplex Cepol Wall and Slab Panels, as well as other elements to be used in the construction of the Housing Units for the Appellant. The Respondent bought all the machinery, equipment and vehicles for the building and operation of the said factories which it had built and immediately commenced the production of the Simplex Cepol Panels for the model houses, in furtherance of the agreement. Although the Respondent was paid for the supply of two new factories at the Nbora site, the Appellant terminated the contracts on the ground that the Respondent had installed second hand and fairly used equipment in the factories, while the factories constructed were unserviceable and unfit for purpose. Upon the termination of the contracts, the Respondent filed an action against the Appellant at the High Court of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja to enforce its rights.

THE REAL IMPORTANCE OF THIS JUDGMENT

Though section 60 of CAMA was enacted to enhance international trade/commerce; hence, it permits the enforcement by a foreign company, a legal right accruing to it from a lawful business or transaction. The Section does not vest in a foreign company, a legal right to enforce an illegal contract. The situation envisaged by the Legislature when enacting Section 60 is where, for instance, a foreign company has had a transaction with a Nigerian or a Nigerian entity, which transaction could be enforced in Nigeria, but which of course may not have been as a result of any business the foreign company is carrying on in Nigeria.  In this wise, the real importance of this judgment is to discouraged illegal business activities in Nigeria by foreign companies.  A lot of foreign companies are not registered in Nigeria and are carrying out businesses. Some of them evade tax. 

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

2.1     Literature Review

This chapter provides a conceptual overview of ethnic militancy and its counter-measures, as well as current and past international  security  environments,  with  specific  reference  to Militancy, ethnic Militancy, global Militancy, and national security. The  main  point  of  departure  of  this  chapter  and  study  is  that  ethnic militancy  is  an  intricate phenomenon  which  has  occurred  in Nigeria  for  over three decades.  This  chapter  aims  to place ethnic Militancy in a conceptual framework and to analyse the links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  the  Nigerian  security  environment.  This  will  set the  tone  for  the  following  chapters  in  which  links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  national security in Nigeria will be identified and analysed.

2.1.1 Ethnic Militancy

A  definitive  and  holistic  definition  of  Militancy  is  hard  to  achieve  in  the  contemporary world. One person’s definition of Militancy is sometimes another’s definition of a freedom fighter.  Martin  (2003)  argues  that  governments  have  developed  definitions  of Militancy;  individual  agencies  within  governments  have  adopted  definitions;  non-governmental  organisations  have  developed  their  definitions;  and  academic  experts have suggested and analysed definitional constructs.  

This  lack  of  accord,  which  exists  throughout  the  public  and  private  sectors,  is  an acknowledged  reality  in  the  study  of  political  violence.  Academics, such  as  Stern  and Gearson, who have developed definitions of, and viewpoints regarding, Militancy, have illustrated this discernible lack of concurrence. Stern (1997) defines Militancy as “an act or threat of violence against non-combatants with the objective of exacting revenge; intimidating, or otherwise influencing an audience”. Her definition avoids circumscribing a perpetrator or purpose. It allows for a range of possible actors (states or their deputies, international  groups,  or  a  single  individual),  pursuing  their  assumed  goals  (political, religious, or economic), and for murder for its own sake. Gearson, (2002) states  that  the  question  of  what  Militancy  is,  has  disappeared  into  an  academic  dead-end, never to return in a meaningful way for policy-makers or the public. The uncertainty over a suitable definition still exists within individual governments. 

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

2.1     Literature Review

This chapter provides a conceptual overview of ethnic militancy and its counter-measures, as well as current and past international  security  environments,  with  specific  reference  to Militancy, ethnic Militancy, global Militancy, and national security. The  main  point  of  departure  of  this  chapter  and  study  is  that  ethnic militancy  is  an  intricate phenomenon  which  has  occurred  in Nigeria  for  over three decades.  This  chapter  aims  to place ethnic Militancy in a conceptual framework and to analyse the links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  the  Nigerian  security  environment.  This  will  set the  tone  for  the  following  chapters  in  which  links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  national security in Nigeria will be identified and analysed.

2.1.1 Ethnic Militancy

A  definitive  and  holistic  definition  of  Militancy  is  hard  to  achieve  in  the  contemporary world. One person’s definition of Militancy is sometimes another’s definition of a freedom fighter.  Martin  (2003)  argues  that  governments  have  developed  definitions  of Militancy;  individual  agencies  within  governments  have  adopted  definitions;  non-governmental  organisations  have  developed  their  definitions;  and  academic  experts have suggested and analysed definitional constructs.  

This  lack  of  accord,  which  exists  throughout  the  public  and  private  sectors,  is  an acknowledged  reality  in  the  study  of  political  violence.  Academics, such  as  Stern  and Gearson, who have developed definitions of, and viewpoints regarding, Militancy, have illustrated this discernible lack of concurrence. Stern (1997) defines Militancy as “an act or threat of violence against non-combatants with the objective of exacting revenge; intimidating, or otherwise influencing an audience”. Her definition avoids circumscribing a perpetrator or purpose. It allows for a range of possible actors (states or their deputies, international  groups,  or  a  single  individual),  pursuing  their  assumed  goals  (political, religious, or economic), and for murder for its own sake. Gearson, (2002) states  that  the  question  of  what  Militancy  is,  has  disappeared  into  an  academic  dead-end, never to return in a meaningful way for policy-makers or the public. The uncertainty over a suitable definition still exists within individual governments. 

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

2.1     Literature Review

This chapter provides a conceptual overview of ethnic militancy and its counter-measures, as well as current and past international  security  environments,  with  specific  reference  to Militancy, ethnic Militancy, global Militancy, and national security. The  main  point  of  departure  of  this  chapter  and  study  is  that  ethnic militancy  is  an  intricate phenomenon  which  has  occurred  in Nigeria  for  over three decades.  This  chapter  aims  to place ethnic Militancy in a conceptual framework and to analyse the links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  the  Nigerian  security  environment.  This  will  set the  tone  for  the  following  chapters  in  which  links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  national security in Nigeria will be identified and analysed.

2.1.1 Ethnic Militancy

A  definitive  and  holistic  definition  of  Militancy  is  hard  to  achieve  in  the  contemporary world. One person’s definition of Militancy is sometimes another’s definition of a freedom fighter.  Martin  (2003)  argues  that  governments  have  developed  definitions  of Militancy;  individual  agencies  within  governments  have  adopted  definitions;  non-governmental  organisations  have  developed  their  definitions;  and  academic  experts have suggested and analysed definitional constructs.  

This  lack  of  accord,  which  exists  throughout  the  public  and  private  sectors,  is  an acknowledged  reality  in  the  study  of  political  violence.  Academics, such  as  Stern  and Gearson, who have developed definitions of, and viewpoints regarding, Militancy, have illustrated this discernible lack of concurrence. Stern (1997) defines Militancy as “an act or threat of violence against non-combatants with the objective of exacting revenge; intimidating, or otherwise influencing an audience”. Her definition avoids circumscribing a perpetrator or purpose. It allows for a range of possible actors (states or their deputies, international  groups,  or  a  single  individual),  pursuing  their  assumed  goals  (political, religious, or economic), and for murder for its own sake. Gearson, (2002) states  that  the  question  of  what  Militancy  is,  has  disappeared  into  an  academic  dead-end, never to return in a meaningful way for policy-makers or the public. The uncertainty over a suitable definition still exists within individual governments. 

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

2.1     Literature Review

This chapter provides a conceptual overview of ethnic militancy and its counter-measures, as well as current and past international  security  environments,  with  specific  reference  to Militancy, ethnic Militancy, global Militancy, and national security. The  main  point  of  departure  of  this  chapter  and  study  is  that  ethnic militancy  is  an  intricate phenomenon  which  has  occurred  in Nigeria  for  over three decades.  This  chapter  aims  to place ethnic Militancy in a conceptual framework and to analyse the links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  the  Nigerian  security  environment.  This  will  set the  tone  for  the  following  chapters  in  which  links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  national security in Nigeria will be identified and analysed.

2.1.1 Ethnic Militancy

A  definitive  and  holistic  definition  of  Militancy  is  hard  to  achieve  in  the  contemporary world. One person’s definition of Militancy is sometimes another’s definition of a freedom fighter.  Martin  (2003)  argues  that  governments  have  developed  definitions  of Militancy;  individual  agencies  within  governments  have  adopted  definitions;  non-governmental  organisations  have  developed  their  definitions;  and  academic  experts have suggested and analysed definitional constructs.  

This  lack  of  accord,  which  exists  throughout  the  public  and  private  sectors,  is  an acknowledged  reality  in  the  study  of  political  violence.  Academics, such  as  Stern  and Gearson, who have developed definitions of, and viewpoints regarding, Militancy, have illustrated this discernible lack of concurrence. Stern (1997) defines Militancy as “an act or threat of violence against non-combatants with the objective of exacting revenge; intimidating, or otherwise influencing an audience”. Her definition avoids circumscribing a perpetrator or purpose. It allows for a range of possible actors (states or their deputies, international  groups,  or  a  single  individual),  pursuing  their  assumed  goals  (political, religious, or economic), and for murder for its own sake. Gearson, (2002) states  that  the  question  of  what  Militancy  is,  has  disappeared  into  an  academic  dead-end, never to return in a meaningful way for policy-makers or the public. The uncertainty over a suitable definition still exists within individual governments. 

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

2.1     Literature Review

This chapter provides a conceptual overview of ethnic militancy and its counter-measures, as well as current and past international  security  environments,  with  specific  reference  to Militancy, ethnic Militancy, global Militancy, and national security. The  main  point  of  departure  of  this  chapter  and  study  is  that  ethnic militancy  is  an  intricate phenomenon  which  has  occurred  in Nigeria  for  over three decades.  This  chapter  aims  to place ethnic Militancy in a conceptual framework and to analyse the links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  the  Nigerian  security  environment.  This  will  set the  tone  for  the  following  chapters  in  which  links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  national security in Nigeria will be identified and analysed.

2.1.1 Ethnic Militancy

A  definitive  and  holistic  definition  of  Militancy  is  hard  to  achieve  in  the  contemporary world. One person’s definition of Militancy is sometimes another’s definition of a freedom fighter.  Martin  (2003)  argues  that  governments  have  developed  definitions  of Militancy;  individual  agencies  within  governments  have  adopted  definitions;  non-governmental  organisations  have  developed  their  definitions;  and  academic  experts have suggested and analysed definitional constructs.  

This  lack  of  accord,  which  exists  throughout  the  public  and  private  sectors,  is  an acknowledged  reality  in  the  study  of  political  violence.  Academics, such  as  Stern  and Gearson, who have developed definitions of, and viewpoints regarding, Militancy, have illustrated this discernible lack of concurrence. Stern (1997) defines Militancy as “an act or threat of violence against non-combatants with the objective of exacting revenge; intimidating, or otherwise influencing an audience”. Her definition avoids circumscribing a perpetrator or purpose. It allows for a range of possible actors (states or their deputies, international  groups,  or  a  single  individual),  pursuing  their  assumed  goals  (political, religious, or economic), and for murder for its own sake. Gearson, (2002) states  that  the  question  of  what  Militancy  is,  has  disappeared  into  an  academic  dead-end, never to return in a meaningful way for policy-makers or the public. The uncertainty over a suitable definition still exists within individual governments. 

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC MILITANCY ON NIGERIA NATIONAL SECURITY, 1999-2015

2.1     Literature Review

This chapter provides a conceptual overview of ethnic militancy and its counter-measures, as well as current and past international  security  environments,  with  specific  reference  to Militancy, ethnic Militancy, global Militancy, and national security. The  main  point  of  departure  of  this  chapter  and  study  is  that  ethnic militancy  is  an  intricate phenomenon  which  has  occurred  in Nigeria  for  over three decades.  This  chapter  aims  to place ethnic Militancy in a conceptual framework and to analyse the links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  the  Nigerian  security  environment.  This  will  set the  tone  for  the  following  chapters  in  which  links  between  ethnic  Militancy  and  national security in Nigeria will be identified and analysed.

2.1.1 Ethnic Militancy

A  definitive  and  holistic  definition  of  Militancy  is  hard  to  achieve  in  the  contemporary world. One person’s definition of Militancy is sometimes another’s definition of a freedom fighter.  Martin  (2003)  argues  that  governments  have  developed  definitions  of Militancy;  individual  agencies  within  governments  have  adopted  definitions;  non-governmental  organisations  have  developed  their  definitions;  and  academic  experts have suggested and analysed definitional constructs.  

This  lack  of  accord,  which  exists  throughout  the  public  and  private  sectors,  is  an acknowledged  reality  in  the  study  of  political  violence.  Academics, such  as  Stern  and Gearson, who have developed definitions of, and viewpoints regarding, Militancy, have illustrated this discernible lack of concurrence. Stern (1997) defines Militancy as “an act or threat of violence against non-combatants with the objective of exacting revenge; intimidating, or otherwise influencing an audience”. Her definition avoids circumscribing a perpetrator or purpose. It allows for a range of possible actors (states or their deputies, international  groups,  or  a  single  individual),  pursuing  their  assumed  goals  (political, religious, or economic), and for murder for its own sake. Gearson, (2002) states  that  the  question  of  what  Militancy  is,  has  disappeared  into  an  academic  dead-end, never to return in a meaningful way for policy-makers or the public. The uncertainty over a suitable definition still exists within individual governments.