CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.1
Conceptual Framework
Several management scholars have
given several definitions of motivation. According to Middle Most and Hit
(1981), motivation is the willful desire to direct one’s behaviour towards
goals. The three key elements in this definition are willful desire, (person’s
choice) behaviour and goal - directed purpose of behaviour. Lakin Folajin (2001), spoke that motivation as
term used generally when somebody is stimulated, the interest of a worker so as
to be able to work and bring or breeds efficiency in his work. Robbins (2001)
defines motivation as the forces that energizes, direct and sustains a person’s
effort. Joena Agbato (1988) says motivation is an important determination of
human behaviour, it sit that which moves one towards a goal, thus, motivation
begat performance. Luthans (1998) motivation is a process which starts with a
physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior at a
drive that is aimed of a goal or incentive. Motivation is an art targeted to
getting people work willingly, and an art of inducing one to behave in a
particular manner to achieve a task. Mee-Edoiye and Andawei (2002) viewed
motivation as a human engineering approached being triggered by the individual
needs. Flippo (1982) defined motivation as a psychological process initiate by
the emergence of needs involving a good directed action and behaviour aimed at
satisfying a particular desire. It is inducement given to workers for higher
output. Motivation behaviour has three basic characteristics:-
1. It is sustained – it is maintained
for a long time – until satisfied.
2. It is goal directed – it seeks to
achieve an objective.
3. It results from – felt need – an
urge directed towards a need.
Several authors including Robert and
Gene Neuport (1995), Williams (1997) and Cole (1990) have propounded theories
to help to understand the human being and how to handle them to get goals
achieved.
2.2
Theoretical Framework For The Study
Many writers have tries to define
motivation from different perspectives, each showing the subject in the manner
in which he or she understands it. But an examination of these definitions will
show that they are pointing towards the same direction.
This concurrence of opinion on the
meaning of motivation was strikingly expounded by Baron R.A (1983), when he
said Inter alia. “That in spite of the many different approaches that have been
taken to the study of motivations, there is a general agreement among scientists
about what motivation is”.
This ascertain notwithstanding, it
would be rewarding to take a brief look at some of the definitions given by
various authors on motivation. Morgan C.T. and King R.A. (1966) opined that:
“Motivation is a general term referring to state that motivate behaviour, the
behaviour motivated by these states and the goals of ends of such behaviour”
accordingly.
These three aspects: The motivating
states, motivated behaviour, and the conditions that satisfy or alleviate the
motivating conditions are linked in a cycle, the first leading to the second,
the second leading to the third, and the third leading to the first”.
In the words of Durbin A.J. (1981),
job motivation refers to the efforts expended to meet an organizational
objective. Dubin R. (1957), defied motivation as generally meaning the
mechanisms inside the person that sustains his continued activity as human
being. Deliberating further, Dubin stated that motivation mechanism is located
throughout the body tissues, and that these mechanisms are inherited by each
individual as a result of the evolutionary history of his species. Following on
that, Atkinson J.W. and Birth D. (1978) agreed that all healthy adults have a
reservoir of potential energy. Igboeli G.N. (1990) also subscribed to this view
when he said that “Motivation is a general term that refers all those inner
force such as desires, drives or motives, wishes and so forth, which kindle,
direct and sustain behaviour towards a goal.”
Dubin R. (1957), in his further
explanation motivation considered it as a form of exchange between the
individual and his social environment.
According to him, the social
environment gives the individual a set of values and norms which are important
guides for channeling the in-born drives of the individual, while the
individual by either conforming or departing from social expectation in his
behaviour either supports the continued existence of the society or threatens
its existence respectively. Thus in exchange for the received values and norms,
the individual gives back to the society his loyalty ad adherence or otherwise.
Subsequent on this, Campbell
et all (1970), alluded that an individual’s motivation has to do with:-
a.
The
direction of his behaviour or what he chooses to do when presented with a
number of possible alternatives.
b.
The
aptitude or strength of the response (i.e. effort) once the choice is made.
c.
The
persistence of the behaviour, or how long he sticks with it.
2.2.1
Theories Of Employee Motivation
Murray E.J. (1964) in his book,
motivation and emotion, postulated that every theory of motivation falls under
one of the following four headings:
(a)
Cognitive
theory
(b)
Hedonism
theory
(c)
Drive
theory and
(d)
Instinct
theory
He further stated that some theories
fall under more than one heading simultaneously.
In his own view, Casio W.F. (1989)
observed that theories of motivation can be classified into one of the three
categories: Need theories, Re-enforcement theories and Expectancy theories.
According to him, Need theories suggest that motivation is a force that results
from an individual desire to satisfy his innate physical and psychological
needs.
Furthermore, he listed the most
popular need theories as:
(1)
Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs, ranging from physiological needs to safety, belonging,
Esteem and self-actualization needs.
(2)
Herzeberg’s
two-factor theory, whereby the satisfaction of needs has one or two effects: it
either causes employees to be satisfied with their job or it prevent employees
from being dis-satisfied with their job.
(3)
McCelland’s
classification of needs according to their intended effects, that is they
satisfy employees’ needs for achievement, affiliation or power.
On re-enforcement theories, Casio
said they focus on the objective performance between performance and rewards.
He gave operant conditioning as its other name.
In the words of Casio, expectancy
theories emphasize the perceived relationship between performance and rewards.
According to the expectancy theories,
individual decision making is the product of three general concepts:
1.
Valency
(the value employee attach to the rewards),
2.
Instrumentality
(brief that performance will be rewarded)
3.
Expectancy
(a person’s belief that if he or she exerts efforts he or she will perform
well).
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